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SAXTON’S 


RURAL  HAND  BOOKS. 

SECOND  SERIES. 


CONTAINING 


EVERY  LADY  HER  OWN  FLOWER  GARDENER. 
SKINNER’S  ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 
BROWNE’S  BIRD  FANCIER. 

DANA’S  ESSAY  ON  MANURES. 

FESSENDEN’S  AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 
AMERICAN  ROSE  CULTURIST. 


NEW  YORK: 

C.  M.  SAXTON, 

AGRICULTURAL  BOOK  PUBLISHER. 

1854. 


Entered  according  to  act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1852,  by 
C.  M.  SAXTON, 

the  Clerk’s  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States,  for  the  Southern 
District  of  New  York. 


ADDRESSED  TO  THE 


INDUSTRIOUS  AND  ECONOMICAL. 

CONTAINING 

SIMPLE  AND  PRACTICAL  DIRECTIONS 


CULTIVATING  PLANTS  AND  FLOWERS 

IN  THE  GARDEN  AND  IN  ROOMS. 

BY  LOUISA  JOHNSON. 


Revised  from  the  Fourteenth  London  Edition,  and  Adapted  to  the 
USE  OF  AMERICAN  LADIES. 


NEW  YORK: 

C.  M.  SAXTON, 

AGRICULTURAL  BOOK  PUBLISHER. 

1852. 


' 


PUBLISHER’S  ADVERTISEMENT 


The  Publisher,  having  found  the  want  of  small,  cheap  Books,  of 
acknowledged  merit,  on  the  great  topics  of  farming  economy,  and 
meeting  for  those  of  such  a class  a constant  demand,  offers,  in  his 
Rural  Handbooks,  of  which  this  is  one,  works  calculated  to  fill  the 
void. 

He  trusts  that  a discerning  Public  will  both  buy  and  read  these 
little  Treatises,  so  admirably  adapted  to  all  classes,  and  fitted  by 
their  size  for  the  pocket,  and  thus  readable  at  the  fireside,  on  the 
road;  and  in  short  everywhere. 

C.  M.  SAXTON, 

Agricultural  Book  Publisher. 


2Af?,‘V 


•* 


4 «*» 


I have  been  induced  to  compile  this  little  work  from  hearing  many  of  my 
companions  regret  that  no  single  book  contained  a sufficiently  condensed  and 
general  account  of  the  business  of  a Flower  Garden.  M We  require,”  they 
said,  “a  work  in  a small  compass,  which  will  enable  us  to  become  our  own 
gardener;  we  wish  to  know  how  to  set  about  everything  ourselves , without 
expense,  without  being  deluged  with  Latin  words  and  technical  terms,  and 
without  being  obliged  to  pick  our  way  through  multiplied  publications,  re- 
dolent of  descriptions,  and  not  always  particularly  lucid.  We  require  a 
practical  work,  telling  us  of  useful  flowers,  simple  modes  of  rearing  them, 
simply  expressed,  and  free  from  lists  of  plants  and  roots  which  require  ex- 
pensive methods  of  preservation.  Some  of  us  have  gardens,  but  we  cannot 
afford  a gardener ; we  like  flowers,  but  we  cannot  attempt  to  take  more 
than  common  pains  to  raise  them.  We  require  to  know  the  hardiest  flowers, 
and  to  comprehend  the  general  business  of  the  garden,  undisturbed  by  fear 
Of  failure,  and  at  the  most  economical  scale  of  expense.  Who  will  write  us 
■uch  a book  1 ” 


VI 


PREFACE. 


I have  endeavored  to  meet  their  views  ; and  my  plan  of  Floriculture  may 
be  carried  into  effect  by  any  lady  who  can  command  the  services  of  an  old 
man,  a woman,  or  a stout  boy.  In  the  present  Edition,  the  publishers  have 
added  a paper  on  Window  Gardening,  written  by  Mr.  M’Intosh — and 
another  on  Domestic  Greenhouses,  an  apparatus  by  which  a small  collec- 
tion of  exotics  may  be  given  in  great  perfection,  and  by  a process  which 
any  lady  may  superintend  with  much  gratification.  In  every  other  respect 
the  work  is  the  result  of  my  own  experience,  and  I dedicate  it  to  all  of  my 
own  sex  who  delight  in  flowers,  and  yet  cannot  allow  themselves  to  enter 
into  great  expense  in  their  cultivation. 


LOUISA  JOHNSON. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Pleasures  of  Gardening — How  conducive  to  health — Early  taste  for 
Gardening  in  England — Pleasure-gardens  at  Theobalds — Garden- 
ing for  Ladies 9 

CHAPTER  II. 

GENERAI  REMARKS. 

Situation  for  a Flower-garden — On  improving  the  Soil — Aspect  and 
choice  of  Flowers— -Monthly  Roses — Rustic  Stages — Garden  Tools 
and  Working  Dress — India-rubber  Shoes  indispensable 13 

CHAPTER  III. 

LAYING  OUT. 

Arrangement  of  Plants — Root-houses — Annuals — Biennials — Perennials 
— Planting  out  Beds — Amelioration  of  Soils — Monthly  Lists  of 
Flowers — Destructive  habits  of  Hares  and  Rabbits — Snails,  Ear- 
wigs, Mildew  and  Blight — Neatness  and  order  indispensable  in  a 
well-kept  Garden — Spring  Plants — List  of  Perennials 18 

CHAPTER  IV. 

BULBS  AND  PERENNIALS. 

Transplanting  Bulbs — Advantage  of  Salt  Manures — Best  arrangement 
for  choice  Bulbs — Select  Lists — Fibrous-rooted  Flowers — Biennials 
— Their  Propagation — Protection  necessary 36 

CHAPTER  V 

ANNUALS. 

Sowing  and  gathering  Seed — Training  and  trimming  Plants — List  of 
Annuals 56 


I 

viii  CONTENTS. 

» 

CHAPTER  VI.  / 

ROSES  AND  JASMINES. 

Poetry  of  Flowers — Varieties  of  Roses — Pyramids — Climbing  Varieties 
Inserts  injurious  to  the  Rose — List  of  Roses — Luxuriant  appearance 
of  the  Jasmine — Devices  for  displaying  its  beauty 63 

CHAPTER  VII. 

SHRUBS  AND  EVERGREENS. 

On  Planting — Distance  between  each — Various  modes  of  Propagating — 

List  of  best  Garden  Sorts — Pruning * 69 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

ON  HOUSE  AND  WINDOW  GARDENING. 

Plants  proper  for  Window  Culture — Treatment  of  House  Plants — Mode 
of  Supply — Bulbs  in  Glasses — Nosegays  and  cut  Flowers — Diseases 
of  Plants 76 

CHAPTER  IX. 

DOMESTIC  GREENHOUSES. 

Form  of  Apparatus — Preparing  the  Soil — Draining — Principles  of  the 
Invention — Situation  of  Plants  91 

CHAPTER  X. 

MONTHLY  NOTICES. 

Recapitulation  of  Work  to  be  done  in  each  Month 102 


LADIES’  FLOWER  GARDENER. 


CHAPTER  I. 

INTRODUCTION. 

? has  been  well  remarked  that  a garden  affords  the  purest  of 
human  pleasures.  The  study  of  Nature  is  interesting  in  all 
her  manifold  combinations:  in  her  wildest  attitudes,  and  in 
her  artful  graces.  The  mind  is  amused,  charmed,  and  astonished 
in  turn,  with  contemplating  her  inexhaustible  display;  and  we  wor- 
ship the  God  who  created  such  pure  and  simple  blessings  for  his 
creatures.  These  blessings  are  open  to  all  degrees  and  conditions 
of  men.  Nature  is  not  a boon  bestowed  upon  the  high-born,  or 
purchased  by  the  wealthy  at  a kingly  price.  The  poor,  the  blind, 
the  halt,  and  the  diseased,  enjoy  her  beauty,  and  derive  benefit 
from  her  study.  Every  cottager  enjoys  the  little  garden  which 
furnishes  his  table  with  comforts,  and  his  mind  with  grateful  feel- 
ings, if  that  mind  is  susceptible  of  religious  impressions.  He 
contemplates  the  gracious  Providence  which  has  bestowed  such 
means  of  enjoyment  upon  him,  as  the  Father  whose  all-seeing 
eye  provides  for  the  lowliest  of  his  children ; and  who  has  placed 
the  “ purest  of  human  pleasures  ” within  the  reach  of  all  whc  are 
not  too  blind  to  behold  his  mercy.  With  this  blessed  view  before 
his  mental  sight,  the  cottager  cultivates  his  little  homestead.  The 
flowers  and  fruits  of  the  earth  bud,  bloom,  and  decay  in  their 
season ; but  Nature  again  performs  her  deputed  mission,  and 
1* 


10 


ladies’  flower  gardener. 


spring  succeeds  the  dreary  winter  with  renewed  beauty  and  two- 
fold increase.  Health  accompanies  simple  and  natural  pleasures. 
The  culture  of  the  ground  affords  a vast  and  interminable  field  of 
observation,  in  which  the  mind  ranges  with  singular  pleasure, 
though  the  body  travels  not.  It  surrounds  home  with  an  un- 
ceasing interest ; domestic  scenes  become  endeared  to  the  eye 
and  mind ; worldly  cares  recede ; and  we  may  truly  say — 

u For  us  kind  Nature  wakes  her  genial  power, 

Suckles  each  herb,  and  spreads  out  every  flower ! 

Annual  for  us,  the  grape,  the  rose,  renew 
The  juice  nectarious.  and  the  balmy  dew : 

For  us,  the  mine  a thousand  treasures  brings; 

For  us,  health  gushes  from  a thousand  springs.” 

Eth,  ep.  i.  ver.  129. 

The  taste  for  gardening  in  England  began  to  display  itself  in 
the  reign  of  Edward  III.,  in  whose  time  the  first  work  on  the 
subject  was  composed  by  Walter  de  Henly.  Flower-gardening 
followed  slowly  in  its  train.  The  learned  Linacre,  who  died  in 
1524,  introduced  the  damask  rose  from  Italy  into  England.  King 
James  I.  of  Scotland,  when  a prisoner  in  Windsor  Castle,,  thus 
describes  its  “ most  faire  ” garden  : — 

“ Now  was  there  maide  fast  by  the  towris  wall, 

A garden  faire,  and  in  the  corneris  set 
An  herbere  green,  with  wandis  long  and  small 
Railit  about,  and  so  with  treeis  set 
Was  all  the  place,  and  hawthorn  hedges  knet, 

That  lyfe  was  now,  walking, there  forbye, 

That  might  within  scarce  any  wight  espie, 

So  thick  the  bowis  and  the  leves  grene 

Bercandit  all,  the  alleyes  all  that  there  were; 

And  myddis  every  herbere  might  be  sene 
The  scharpe  grene  swete  junipere 
Growing  so  fair,  with  branches  here  and  there, 

That,  as  it  seymt  to  a lyfe  without, 

The  bowis  spred  the  herbere  all  about.” 

The  Quair, 

Henry  VIII.  ordered  the  formation  of  his  garden  at  Nonsuch 
about  the  year  1509,  and  Leland  says  it  was  a “Nonpareil.0 


INTRODUCTION. 


11 


Hentyner  assures  us  of  its  perfect  beauty,  describing  one  of  its 
marble  basins  as  being  set  round  with  “ lilac  trees,  which  trees 
bear  no  fruit,  but  only  a pleasant  smell.” 

The  pleasure-gardens  at  Theobalds,  the  seat  of  Lord  Burleigh, 
were  unique,  according  to  the  report  of  Lyson.  In  it  were  nine 
knots  exquisitely  made,  one  of  which  was  set  forth  in  likeness  of 
the  king’s  arms.  “ One  might  walk  two  myle  in  the  walks  before 
he  came  to  an  end.” 

Queen  Elizabeth  was  extremely  fond  of  flowers,  and  her  taste 
ever  influenced  that  of  her  court.  Gilliflowers,  carnations,  tulips, 
Provence  and  musk  roses,  were  brought  to  England  in  her  reign. 

William  III.  loved  a pleasaunce  or  pleasure-garden  ; but  he 
introduced  the  Dutch  fashion  of  laying  them  out,  which  is  still 
horrible  in  our  eyes.  His  Queen  superintended  in  person  all  her 
arrangements  in  the  flower-garden, — an  amusement  particularly 
delightful  to  her.  In  those  days,  “ knottes  and  mazes  ” were  no 
longer  the  pride  of  a parterre,  with  a due  allowance  of  “ pleasant 
and  fair  fishponds.” 

Queen  Anne  remodeled  the  gardens  at  Kensington,  and  did 
away  with  the  Dutch  inventions.  Hampton  Court  was  also  laid 
out  in  a more  perfect  state  in  her  reign,  under  the  direction  of 
Wise. 

Since  that  period,  flower-gardening  has  progressed  rapidly ; 
and  the  amusement  of  floriculture  has  become  the  dominant  pas- 
sion of  the  ladies  of  Great  Britain.  It  is  a passion  most  blessed 
in  its  effects,  considered  as  an  amusement  or  a benefit.  Nothing 
humanizes  and  adorns  the  female  mind  more  surely  than  a taste 
for  ornamental  gardening.  It  compels  the  reason  to  act,  and  the 
judgment  to  observe;  it  is  favorable  to  meditation  of  the  most 
serious  kind  ; it  exercises  the  fancy  in  harmless  and  elegant  occu- 
pation, and  braces  the  system  by  its  healthful  tendency.  A 
flower-garden,  to  the  young  and  single  of  my  sex,  acts  upon  the 


12 


LADIES7  FLOWER  GARDENER. 


heart  and  affections  as  a nursery  acts  upon  the  matronly  feelings. 
It  attaches  them  to  their  home ; it  throws  a powerful  charm  over 
the  spot  dedicated  to  such  deeply-interesting  employment ; and 
it  lures  them  from  dwelling  too  deeply  upon  the  unavoidable  dis- 
appointments and  trials  of  life,  which  sooner  or  later  disturb  and 
disquiet  the  heart. 

An  amusement  which  kings  and  princes  have  stamped  with 
dignity,  and  which  has  afforded  them  recreation  under  the  toils 
of  government,  must  become  for  ever  venerated,  and  will  be 
sought  for  by  every  elegant  as  well  as  by  every  scientific  mind. 
Floriculture  ranges  itself  under  the  head  of  female  accomplish- 
ments in  these  our  days ; and  we  turn  with  pity  from  the  spirit 
which  will  not  find  in  her  “ garden  of  roses  ” the  simplest  and 
purest  of  pleasures. 


GENERAL  REMARKS. 


13 


CHAPTER  II. 

GENERAL  REMARKS. 

the  laying  out  of  a garden,  the  soil  and  situation  must  be 
considered  as  much  as  the  nature  of  the  ground  will  admit. 
Let  no  lady,  however,  despair  of  being  able  to  raise  fine  flow- 
ers upon  any  soil,  providing  the  sun  is  not  too  much  excluded,  for 
the  rays  of  the  sun  are  the  vital  principle  of  existence  to  all  vege- 
tation. The  too  powerful  rays  can  be  warded  off  by  the  arts  of  in- 
vention, but  we  have  yet  no  substitute  for  that  glorious  orb.  Unless 
its  warm  and  forcing  influence  is  allowed  to  extend  over  the  surface 
of  the  garden,  all  flowers  wither,  languish,  and  die.  Sun  and  air 
are  the  lungs  and  heart  of  flowers.  A lady  will  be  rewarded  for 
her  trouble  in  making  her  parterre  in  the  country ; but  in  large 
towns,  under  the  influence  of  coal  smoke,  shade,  and  gloom,  her 
lot  will  be  constant  disappointment.  She  can  only  hope  to  keep 
a few  consumptive  geraniums  languishing  through  the  summer 
months,  to  die  in  October,  and  show  the  desolating  view  of  rows 
of  pots  containing  blackened  and  dusty  stems. 

Many  soils  which  are  harsh  or  arid,  are  susceptible  of  improve- 
ment by  a little  pains.  Thus,  a stiff  clay,  by  digging  well  and 
leaving  it  to  become  pulverized  by  the  action  of  the  frost,  and 
then  mixing  plenty  of  ashes  with  it,  becomes  a fine  mould,  which 
I have  ever  found  most  excellent  for  all  flowers  of  the  hardier 
kind.  The  black  soil  is  the  richest  in  itself,  and  requires  no  assist- 
ance beyond  changing  it  about  a foot  in  depth  every  three  years, 
as  a flower  garden  requires  renewing,  if  a lady  expects  a succes- 


14 


ladies’  flower  gardener. 


sion  of  handsome  flowers.  The  ground  should  be  well  dug  the 
latter  end  of  September  or  October,  or  even  in  November,  and  if 
the  soil  is  not  sufficiently  fine,  let  it  be  dug  over  a second  or  third 
time,  and  neatly  raked  with  a very  fine-toothed  rake. 

Stony  ground  requires  riddling  well,  and  great  care  must  be 
taken  to  keep  it  neat  by  picking  up  the  little  stones  which  con- 
stantly force  themselves  to  the  surface  after  rains.  Nothing  is  so 
unbecoming  as  weeds  and  stones  in  parterres,  where  the  eye  seeks 
flowers  and  neatness. 

Almost  every  plant  loves  sand ; and  if  that  can  be  procured,  it 
enriches  and  nourishes  the  soil,  especially  for  bulbs,  pinks,  carna- 
tions, auriculas,  hyacinths,  &c.  Let  it  be  mixed  in  the  proportion 
of  a third  part  to  the  whole. 

If  the  dead  leaves  are  swept  into  a mound  every  autumn,  and 
the  soap  suds,  brine,  &c.,  of  the  house  be  thrown  upon  it,  the 
mass  will  quickly  decompose,  and  become  available  the  following 
year.  It  makes  an  admirable  compost  for  auriculas,  &c.,  mixed 
with  garden  or  other  mould. 

If  the  ground  be  a gravelly  soil,  the  flower-garden  should  not 
slope,  for  stony  ground  requires  all  the  moisture  you  can  give  it, 
while  the  sloping  situation  would  increase  the  heat  and  dryness. 
A moist  earth,  on  the  contrary,  would  be  improved  by  being 
sloped  towards  the  east  or  west. 

The  south  is  not  so  proper  for  flowers,  as  a glaring  sun  withers 
the  tender  flowers  ; but  the  north  must  be  carefully  avoided,  and 
shut  out  by  a laurel  hedge,  a wall,  or  any  rural  fence  garnished 
with  hardy  creepers,  or  monthly  roses,  which  make  a gay  and 
agreeable  defense.  Monthly  roses  are  invaluable  as  auxiliaries  of 
all  kinds.  They  will  grow  in  any  soil,  and  bloom  through  the 
winter  months,  always  giving  a delicate  fragrance,  and  smiling 
evon  in  the  snow.  Monthly  roses  will  ever  be  the  florist’s  de- 
light : they  are  the  hardiest,  most  delicate-looking,  and  greenest- 


GENERAL  REMARKS. 


15 


leaved  of  garden  productions  ; they  give  no  trouble,  and  speedily 
form  a beautiful  screen  against  any  offensive  object.  No  flower 
garden  should  exist  without  abundance  of  monthly  roses. 

It  has  often  been  a disputed  point  whether  flower  gardens 
should  be  intersected  with  gravel  walks  or  with  grass  plots. 
This  must  be  left  entirely  to  the  taste  and  means  of  the  party 
forming  a garden.  Lawn  is  as  wet  and  melancholy  in  the  winter 
months,  as  it  is  beautiful  and  desirable  in  summer;  and  it  requires 
great  care  and  attention  in  mowing  and  rolling,  and  trimming 
round  the  border.  Gravel  walks  have  this  advantage  : the  first 
trouble  is  the  last,  They  will  only  require  an  old  woman’s  or  a 
child’s  assistance  in  keeping  them  free  from  weeds  ; and  a lady 
has  not  the  same  fears  of  taking  cold,  or  getting  wet  in  her  feet, 
during  the  rains  of  autumn  and  spring. 

Many  females  are  unequal  to  the  fatigue  of  bending  down  to 
flowers,  and  particularly  object  to  the  stooping  posture.  In  this 
case,  ingenuity  alone  is  required  to  raise  the  flowers  to  a conve- 
nient height ; and,  by  so  doing,  to  increase  the  beauty  and  pic- 
turesque appearance  of  the  garden.  Old  barrels  cut  in  half,  tubs, 
pails,  &c.,  neatly  painted  outside,  or  adorned  with  rural  orna- 
ments, and  raised  upon  feet  neatly  carved,  or  mounds  of  earth, 
stand  in  lieu  of  richer  materials,  such  as  vases,  parapet  walls,  and 
other  expensive  devices,  which  ornament  the  gardens  of  the 
wealthy.  I have  seen  these  humble  materials  shaped  into  forms 
as  pleasing  to  the  eye,  and  even  more  consonant  to  our  damp 
climate,  than  marble  vases.  They  never  look  green  from  time, 
and  are  renewed  at  a very  trifling  expense.  A few  pounds  of 
nails,  and  the  unbarked  thinnings  from  fir  plantations,  are  the 
sole  requisites  towards  forming  any  device  which  a tasteful  fancy 
can  dictate ; and  a little  green  paint  adds  beauty  and  durability 
when  the  bark  falls  from  the  wood  it  protects.  I have  seen  fir 
balls  nailed  on  to  these  forms  in  tasteful  patterns ; and  creepers 


16 


ladies’  flower  gardener. 


being  allowed  to  fall  gracefully  over  the  brims,  give  a remark- 
ably pleasing  and  varied  appearance  to  the  parterre. 

Where  mould  is  not  easily  to  be  procured — as,  for  instance,  in 
towns — the  tubs  or  receptacles  may  be  half  filled  with  any  kind 
of  rubble,  only  space  must  be  left  to  allow  of  two  feet  of  fine 
mould  at  the  top,  which  is  quite  sufficient  for  bulbous  roots, 
creepers,  &c.  These  receptacles  have  one  powerful  advantage 
over  ground  plots  ; they  can  be  moved  under  sheds,  or  into  out- 
houses, during  the  heavy  rains  or  frosts  of  winter ; and  thereby 
enable  a lady  to  preserve  the  more  delicate  flowers,  which  would 
deteriorate  by  constant  exposure  to  inclement  weather. 

A lady  requires  peculiar  tools  for  her  light  work.  She  should 
possess  a light  spade  ; two  rakes,  one  with  very  fine  teeth,  and 
the  other  a size  larger,  for  cleaning  the  walks  when  they  are 
raked,  and  for  raking  the  larger  stones  from  the  garden  borders. 
A light  garden  fork  is  very  necessary  to  take  up  bulbous  or  other 
roots  with,  as  the  spade  would  wound  and  injure  them,  whereas 
they  pass  safely  through  the  interstices  of  the  fork  or  prong.  A 
watering-pot  is  indispensable,  and  a hoe.  Two  trowels  are  like- 
wise necessary ; one  should  be  a tolerable  size,  to  transplant  pe- 
rennial and  biennial  flower  roots  ; the  other  should  be  pointed 
and  small,  to  transplant  the  more  delicate  roots  of  anemones, 
bulbs,  <fec. 

The  pruning-knife  must  be  always  sharp,  and,  in  shape,  it 
should  bend  a little  inwards,  to  facilitate  cutting  away  straggling 
or  dead  shoots,  branches,  &c.  The  “ avroncator,”  lately  so  much 
in  request,  is  an  admirable  instrument ; but  it  is  expensive,  and 
of  most  importance  in  shrubberies,  where  heavy  branches  are  to 
be  cut  away.  The  Sieur  Louis  d’Auxerre,  who  wrote  a work 
upon  gardening  in  1706,  has  a sketch  of  the  avroncator  of  the 
present  day,  which  he  designates  as  caterpillar  shears. 

A light  pair  of  shears,  kept  always  in  good  order,  is  necessary 


GENERAL  REMARKS. 


17 


to  keep  privet  or  laurel  hedges  properly  clipped ; and  a §tout 
deep  basket  must  be  deposited  in  the  tool-shed,  to  contain  the 
weeds  and  clippings.  These  are  the  only  tools  absolutely  essen- 
tial to  a lady’s  garden.  I have  seen  a great  variety  dcjcprating 
the  wall  of  an  amateur  tool -house,  but  they  must  hav^Ssen  in- 
tended for  show,  not  for  use.  A real  artiste,  in  whatever  pro- 
fession she  may  engage,  will  only  encumber  herself  with  essen- 
tials. All  else  is  superfluous. 

I have  reserved  two  especially  necessary  recommendations  to  the 
last,  being  comforts  independent  of  the  tool-house.  Every  lady 
should  be  furnished  with  a gardening  apron,  composed  of  stout 
Holland,  with  ample  pockets  to  contain  her  pruning- knife,  a small 
stout  hammer,  a ball  of  string,  and  a few  nails  and  snippings  of 
cloth.  Have  nothing  to  do  with  scissors ; they  are  excellent  in 
the  work-room,  but  dangerous  in  a flower  garden,  as  they  wrench 
and  wound  the  stems  of  flowers.  The  knife  cuts  slanting, 
which  is  the  proper  way  of  taking  off  slips ; and  the  knife  is 
sufficient  for  all  the  purposes  of  a flower  garden,  even  for  cutting 
string. 

The  second  article  which  I pronounce  to  be  indispensable  is  a 
pair  of  India  rubber  shoes,  or  the  wooden  high -heeled  shoes 
called  “ sabots  ” by  the  French.  In  these  protections,  a lady 
may  indulge  her  passion  for  flowers  at  all  seasons,  without  risk 
of  rheumatism  or  chills,  providing  it  does  not  actually  rain  or 
snow : and  the  cheering  influence  of  the  fresh  air,  combined  with 
a favorite  amusement,  must  ever  operate  beneficially  on  the  mind 
and  body  in  every  season  of  the  year. 


18 


ladies’  flower  gardener. 


CHAPTER  III. 

ON  LAYING  OUT. 

fHERE  are  many  modes  of  adorning  a small  piece  of  ground, 
so  as  to  contain  gay  flowers  and  plants,  and  appear  double  its 
real  size.  By  covering  every  wall  or  palisade  with  monthly 
roses  and  creepers  of  every  kind,  no  space  is  lost,  and  unsightly  ob- 
jects even  contribute  to  the  general  effect  of  a “Plaisaunce.”  The 
larger  flowers,  such  as  hollyhocks,  sunflowers,  &c.,  look  to  the 
best  advantage  as  a back  ground,  either  planted  in  clumps,  or 
arranged  singly.  Scarlet  lychnis,  campanula,  or  any  second- 
sized flowers,  may  range  themselves  below,  and  so  in  graduated 
order,  till  the  eye  reposes  upon  a foreground  of  pansies,  auriculas, 
polyanthuses,  and  innumerable  humbler  beauties.  Thus  all  are 
seen  in  their  order,  and  present  a mass  of  superb  coloring  to  the 
observer,  none  interfering  with  the  other.  The  hollyhock  does 
not  shroud  the  lowly  pansy  from  displaying  its  bright  tints  of  yel- 
low and  purple  ; neither  can  the  sturdy  and  gaudy  sunflower  hide 
the  modest  double  violet  or  smartly  clad  anemone  from  observa- 
tion. Each  flower  is  by  this  mode  of  planting  distinctly  seen, 
and  each  contributes  its  beauty  and  its  scent,  by  receiving  the 
beams  of  the  sun  in  equal  proportions. 

If  the  trunk  of  a tree  stands  tolerably  free  from  deep  over- 
shadowing branches,  twine  the  creeping  rose,  the  late  honey- 
suckle, or  the  everlasting  pea  round  its  stem,  that  every  inch  of 
ground  may  become  available.  The  tall  naked  stem  of  the 
young  ash  looks  well  festooned  with  roses  and  honeysuckles. 


ON  LAYING  OUT. 


19 


Wherever  creeping  flowering  plants  can  live,  let  them  adorn  every 
nook  and  corner,  stem,  wall,  and  post ; they  are  elegant  in  ap- 
pearance, and  many  of  them,  particularly  clematis,  are  delicious 
in  fragrant  scent. 

If  flowers  are  planted  in  round  or  square  plots,  the  same  rule 
applies  in  arranging  them.  The  tallest  must  be  placed  in  the 
center,  but  I recommend  a lady  to  banish  sunflowers  and  holly- 
hocks from  her  plots,  and  consign  them  to  broad  borders  against 
a wall,  or  in  clumps  of  three  and  three,  as  a screen  against  the 
north,  or  against  any  unsightly  object.  Their  large  roots  draw 
so  much  nourishment  from  the  ground,  that  the  lesser  plants  suf- 
fer, and  the  soil  becomes  quickly  exhausted.  Like  gluttons,  they 
should  feed  alone,  or  their  companions  will  languish  in  starvation, 
and  become  impoverished.  The  wren  cannot  feed  with  the  vul- 
ture. 

The  south  end  or  corner  of  a moderate  flower  garden  should 
be  fixed  upon  for  the  erection  of  a root  house,  which  is  not  an 
expensive  undertaking,  and  which  forms  a picturesque  as  well  as 
a most  useful  appendage  to  a lady’s  parterre.  Thinnings  of 
plantations,  which  are  everywhere  procured  at  a very  moderate 
charge,  rudely  shaped  and  nailed  into  any  fancied  form,  may 
supply  all  that  is  needful  to  the  little  inclosure  ; and  a thatch  of 
straw,  rushes,  or  heather,  will  prove  a sure  defense  to  the  roof 
and  back.  There,  a lady  may  display  her  taste  by  the  beauty  of 
the  flowers  which  she  may  train  through  the  rural  frame- work. 
There,  the  moss-rose,  the  jessamine,  the  honeysuckle,  the  convol- 
vulus, and  many  other  bright  and  beautiful  flowers,  may  escape 
and  cluster  around  her,  as  she  receives  rest  and  shelter  within 
their  graceful  lattice-work.  There,  also,  may  be  deposited  the 
implements  of  her  vocation ; and  during  the  severe  weather,  its 
warm  precincts  will  protect  the  finer  kinds  of  carnations,  pinks, 


20 


ladies’  flowed  gardener. 


auriculas,  <fcc.,  which  do  not  bear  the  heavy  rains,  or  frosts  of 
lengthened  duration,  without  injuring  the  plant. 

Flowers  are  divided  into  three  classes : — annuals,  biennials, 
and  perennials. 

Annuals  are  those  flowers  which  are  raised  from  seeds  alone,  in 
the  spring,  and  which  die  in  the  autumn.  They  are  again  divi- 
ded into  three  classes : — the  tender  and  more  curious  kinds  ; the 
less  tender  or  hardier  kinds  ; and  the  hardiest  and  common  kinds. 

Biennials  are  those  flowers  which  are  produced  by  seed,  bloom 
the  second  year,  and  remain  two  years  in  perfection,  after  which 
they  gradually  dwindle  and  die  away. 

Some  sorts,  however,  of  the  biennials,  afford  a continuation  of 
plants  by  offsets,  slips,  and  cuttings  of  the  tops,  and  by  layers 
and  pipings,  so  that,  though  the  parent  flower  dies,  the  species 
are  perpetuated,  particularly  to  continue  curious  double-flowered 
kinds,  as  for  instance,  double  rockets,  by  root  offsets,  and  cuttings 
of  the  young  flower-stalks ; double  wallflowers  by  slips  of  the 
small  top  shoots  ; double  sweet-williams  by  layers  and  pipings ; 
and  carnations  by  layers. 

Perennials  are  those  flowers  which  continue  many  years,  and 
are  propagated  by  root  offsets,  suckers,  parting  roots,  &c.,  as 
will  be  more  fully  particularised  under  the  head  of  Perennials . 

It  has  been  a debated  point  among  florists  whether  plots  or 
baskets  should  be  devoted  each  to  a particular  variety  of  flower, 
or  receive  flowers  of  different  kinds,  flowering  at  separate  seasons. 
Thus,  many  ladies  set  apart  one  plot  of  ground  for  anemones  only 
— another  plot  receives  only  pansies,  and  so  on.  There  is  much 
to  be  said  on  both  sides  the  question. 

If  a plot  of  ground  is  devoted  to  one  variety  of  flower  only, 
you  can  give  it  the  appropriate  mould,  and  amuse  your  eye  with 
its  expanse  of  bright  coloring.  Nothing  is  more  beautiful  than 
a bed  of  pansies,  or  a bed  of  the  bright  and  glowing  scarlet  ver- 


ON  LAYING  OUT. 


21 


bina ; nothing  can  exceed  the  gay  and  flaunty  tints  of  a bed  of 
tulips,  or  the  rich  hues  of  the  lilac  and  the  white  petunia.  A 
large  space  of  garden  allows  its  possessor  to  revel  in  separate 
beds  of  flowers,  whose  beauty  is  increased  twofold  by  masses ; 
and  from  that  very  space,  the  eye  does  not  so  easily  discover  the 
melancholy  appearance  of  one  or  more  plots  exhibiting  nothing 
but  dark  mould,  and  withered  stems,  arising  from  the  earlier 
sorts  being  out  of  bloom. 

But  in  less  spacious  gardens,  this  gloomy  and  mournful  vacuum 
must  be  avoided.  Every  border  and  plot  of  ground  should  ex- 
hibit a gay  succession  of  flowers  in  bloom  ; and  that  object  can 
only  be  effected  by  a pretty  equal  distribution  of  flowers  of  early 
and  late  growth.  As  the  May  flowers  droop,  the  June  produc- 
tions supply  their  place  ; and  these,  again,  are  followed  in  succes- 
sion, till  the  Golden  rod  and  Michaelmas  day  daisy  announce  the 
decadence  of  the  parterre  for  the  year. 

Yet  every  flower  may  be  supplied  with  its  favorite  soil  with  a 
little  patience  and  observation.  A light  soil  suits  all  descriptions 
very  well ; and  I never  yet  found  disappointment  in  any  descrip- 
tion of  earth  which  was  thoroughly  well  dug,  and  dressed  yearly 
from  the  mound  of  accumulated  leaves  and  soap-suds,  alluded  to 
in  the  first  chapter.  I particularly  recommend  a portion  of  sand 
mixed  with  the  heap.  All  bulbs,  carnations,  pinks,  auriculas, 
ranunculuses,  &c.,  love  a mixture  of  sand.  I know  no  flowers  of 
the  hardy  class  which  reject  it.  Mix  sand  well  into  your  borders 
and  plots,  and  you  will  not  fail  to  have  handsome  flowers. 

I subjoin  a list  of  common  flowers  appertaining  to  each  month, 
in  order  to  fill  the  borders  with  one  or  more  roots  of  each 
variety.  I do  not  include  the  annuals. 


22 


LADIES’  FLOWER  GARDENER, 


JANUARY. 


In  this  month  the  following  flowers  are  in  blow : — 


Single  Anemones 
Winter  Cyclamens 
Michaelmas  Daisy 
Hepaticas 


Primroses 
Winter  Hyacinth 
Narcissus  of  the  East 
Christmas  Rose 


Single  Anemones 
Forward  Anemones 
Persian  Iris 
Spring  Crocus 


FEBRUARY. 

Single  Yellow  Gilliflower 
Single  Liverwort 
Winter  Aconite 
Hepaticas 


Bulbous  Iris 
Anemones  of  all  sorts 
Spring  Cyclamens 
Liverwort  of  all  sorts 
Daffodils 
Crowfoots 
Spring  Crocus 


Hyacinths  of  all  sorts 
Jonquils 

Yellow  Gilliflower 
Narcissus  of  several  kinds 
Forward  Bears’-ears 
Forward  Tulips 

Single  Primroses  of  divers  colors 


APRIL. 


Daisies 

Yellow  Gilliflowers 
Narcissus  of  all  sorts 
Forward  Bears’-ear 
Spring  Cyclamens 

Crocus,  otherwise  called  Saffron- 
flowers 

Anemones  of  all  sorts 
Iris 

Pansies 

Daffodils 


Double  Liverworts 
Primroses 
Honeysuckles 
Tulips 
Hyacinths 
Single  Jonquils 
Crown-Imperial 
Yellow  Gilliflowers,  double 
single 

Pasque-Flowers 
March  Violets 


and 


may. 

Anemones 

Gilliflowers  of  all  sorts 
Yellow  Gilliflowers 
Columbines 
Asphodils 

Orange,  or  flame-colored  Lilies 
Double  Jacea,  a sort  of  Lychnis 
Cyanuses  of  all  sorts 
Hyacinths 
Day  Lilies 
Bastard  Dittany 
Daisies 

Lily  of  the  Valley 


Mountain  Pinks 
Pansies 

Peonies  of  all  sorts 
Ranunculuses  of  all  sorts 
Some  Irises : as  those  which  we 
call  the  Bulbous  Iris,  and  the 
Chamae-Iris 

Italian  Spider  wort,  a sort  of  As- 
phodil 

Poet7s  Pinks 
Backward  Tulips 

Julians,  otherwise  called  English 
Gilliflowers 


ON  LAYING  OUT. 


23 


Snap-dragons  of  all  sorts 
Wild  Tansies 

Pinks,  otherwise  called  Lychnises 

Irises 

Roses 

Tuberoses 

Pansies 

Larkspur 

Great  Daisies 


JUNE. 

Climbers 

Cy anuses  of  all  sorts 
Foxgloves  of  all  sorts 
Mountain  Lilies 
Gilliflowers  of  all  sorts 
Monk’s-hoods 
Pinks  of  all  sorts 
Candy-tufts 
Poppies 


Jessamine 
Spanish  Brown 
Basils 

Bell-flowers 

Indian  Jacea 

Great  Daisies 

Monk’s-hoods 

Pinks 

Scabiuses 

Nigellas 

Cyclamens 

Lobel’s  Catch-flies 

Lilies  of  all  sorts 

Apples  of  Love 

Comfrey 

Poppies 

Snap-dragons 

Double  Marigolds 

Amaranthuses 

Hellebore 

Ox-eyes 


Oculus  Christi,  otherwise  called 
Starwort 
Belvederes 

Climbers  of  all  sorts  _ 

Apples  of  Love 
Marvels  of  Peru 
Pansies 
Ranunculuses 
Double  Marigolds 
Candy-tufts 
Autumn  Cyclamens 
Jessamines 

Sunflowers,  vivacious  and  annual 
Indian  Narcissus 


JULY. 

Pinks  of  the  Poets 

Bee- flowers 

Sea-hollies 

Foxgloves 

Wild  Poppies 

Everlastings 

Roses 

Dittanies 

Bindweeds 

Lilies  of  St.  Bruno 

Tricolors 

Squills 

Motherworts 

Climbers 

Oculus  Christi 

Camomile 

Sunflowers 

Belvederes 

Gilliflowers  of  all  sorts 

Thorn-apple 

Valerian 

AUGUST. 

Foxgloves 

Cyclamens 

Passion-flowers 

Everlastings 

Tuberoses 

Monk’s-hood 

Indian  Pinks  of  all  kinds 

Bindweed 

Passvelours 

Great  Daisies 

White  Bell-flower 

Autumnal  Meadow  Saffron 

Gilliflowers 


24 


LADIES’  FLOWER  GARDENER. 


Tricolors 

Love-apples 

Marvel  of  Peru 

Monk’s-hood 

Narcissus  of  Portugal 

Snap-dragons 

Oculus  Christi 

Basils 

Belvederes 

Great  Daisies 

Double  Marigolds 

Monthly  Roses 

Tuberoses 


SEPTEMBER. 

Amaryllis 

Autumnal  Narcissus 
White  Bell-flowers 
Indian  Pinks 
Indian  Roses 
Amaranthus 
Pansies 
Passion-flower 
Autumnal  Crocus 
Thorn-apple 
Carnations 

Ranunculuses  planted  in  May 
Colchicums 


Tricolors 
Oculus  Christi 
Snap-dragons 
Colchicums 
Autumn  Crocus 
Autumnal  Cyclamens 
Monk’s-hood 
Indian  Pinks 


OCTOBER. 

Pansies  that  were  sown  in  August 

Passion-flower 

Passvelours 

Double  Marigolds 

Some  Pinks 

Amaryllis 

Autumnal  Narcissus 


NOVEMBER. 


Snap-dragons 

Double  and  Single  Gilliflowers 
Great  Daisies 
Pansies  sown  in  August 
Monthly  Roses 


Double  Violets 
Single  Anemones  of  all  sort* 
Winter  Cyclamens 
Forward  Hellebore 
Golden  Rod 


Rabbits  are  an  intolerable  nuisance  in  a flower  garden,  and  in 
some  country  places  they  abound  most  destructively.  A light 
wire  fence  about  two  feet  high,  closely  lattice-worked,  or  a net 
of  the  same  height,  carried  round  the  garden,  is  a sure  defense 
from  these  marauders.  But  where  these  conveniences  are  unat- 
tainable, there  are  other  modes  which  answer  the  purpose,  but 
they  require  a little  trouble  and  patience. 

It  is  the  well-known  nature  of  Rabbits  and  Hares  to  dislike 
climbing  or  entangling  their  feet;  and  very  simple  inventions 
deter  them  from  attempting  to  gnaw  the  roots  and  hearts  of 


ON  LAYING  OUT. 


25 


flowers.  They  will  not  walk  upon  straw  or  ashes  strewed  thickly 
round  any  plant : they  equally  dislike  a fence  of  sticks  placed 
round  a plot,  with  bits  of  white  paper  or  card  fastened  to  each 
stick  ; or  a string  carried  round  the  sticks  a foot  or  two  high. 
If  they  cannot  creep  under  a slight  fence,  they  never  attempt  to 
leap  over  it.  If  a stick  is  run  into  the  ground  close  to  a plant, 
and  other  sticks  are  slanted  from  the  ground  towards  the  center, 
the  plant  will  remain  untouched,  be  the  frost  of  ever  so  long 
duration. 

Snails  are  disagreeable  intruders,  but  the  following  method  is 
an  exterminating  war  of  short  duration  : — 

Throw  cabbage  leaves  upon  your  borders  over  night ; in  the 
morning,  early,  you  will  find  them  covered  underneath  with 
snails,  which  have  taken  refuge  there.  Thus  they  are  easily 
taken  and  destroyed. 

Earwigs  are  taken  in  great  numbers  by  hanging  gallipots, 
tubes,  or  any  such  receptacle,  upon  low  sticks  in  the  borders  over 
night.  In  these  they  shelter  themselves,  and  are  consequently 
victimized  in  the  morning.  The  gallipots,  broken  bottles,  &c., 
should  be  placed  upon  the  stick  like  a man’s  hat,  that  the  vermin 
may  ascend  into  them. 

Ants  are  very  great  enemies  to  flowers  ; but  I know  no  method 
of  attacking  them,  except  in  their  own  strongholds,  which  I have 
always  done  with  cruel  intrepidity  and  success.  My  only  plan 
was  to  lay  open  the  little  ant-hill,  and  pour  boiling  water  upon 
the  busy  insects,  which  destroyed  at  once  the  commonwealth, 
and  the  eggs  deposited  within  the  mound.  In  some  places  ants 
are  extremely  large  and  abundant,  and  they  quickly  destroy  the 
beauty  of  a flower  by  attacking  its  root  and  heart.* 

* The  Emperor  Pagonatus,  who  wrote  a treatise  upon  agriculture,  assures 
us,  that  to  clear  a garden  of  ants,  we  should  burn  empty  snail  shells  with 
storax  wood,  and  throw  the  ashes  upon  the  ant-hills,  which  obliges  them  to 
remove.  I never  tried  this  method. 

2 


26 


ladies’  flower  gardener. 


Mildew  and  blight  infest  roses  and  honey-suckles.  Soap-suds 
thrown  over  rose  bushes ; heavy  waterings  with  tobacco- water, 
or  the  water  in  which  potatoes  have  been  boiled,  is  successful  in 
a degree,  but  the  best  way  is  a very  troublesome  one  to  perse- 
vere in.  Pinch  every  leaf  well  which  curls  up,  by  which  you 
may  know  a small  maggot  is  deposited  therein.  By  so  doing 
you  destroy  the  germ  of  a thousand  little  monsters. 

Mildew  and  blight  come  from  the  east ; therefore  honeysuckles 
should  be  sheltered  from  that  aspect ; for,  as  they  rise  and  spread 
widely,  they  are  not  so  manageable  as  a rose-bush.  A mass  of 
luxuriant  honeysuckles  is  beautiful  to  the  eye  and  delicious  in 
fragrance  : but  covered  with  mildew,  it  is  a blackened  and  miser- 
able object.  Mildew,  fortunately,  does  not  make  its  appearance 
every  spring ; but  once  in  four  or  five  years  it  comes  as  a plague, 
to  desolate  the  garden.  A great  deal  may  be  raked  away  if 
taken  off  as  soon  as  it  spreads  its  cobwebs  over  these  lovely 
flowers  ; but  it  should  be  done  without  delay. 

I cannot  lay  too  great  stress  upon  the  neatness  in  which  a 
lady’s  garden  should  be  kept.  If  it  is  not  beautifully  neat,  it  is 
nothing.  For  this  reason,  keep  every  plant  distinct  in  the  flower- 
beds ; let  every  tall  flower  be  well  staked,  that  the  wind  may  not 
blow  it  prostrate  ; rake  away  dead  leaves  from  the  beds,  and 
trim  every  flower-root  from  discolored  leaves,  weeds,  &c.  ; re- 
move all  weeds  and  stones  the  moment  they  appear,  and  clear 
away  decaying  stems,  which  are  so  littering  and  offensive  to  the 
eye.  There  is  always  some  employment  of  this  kind  for  every 
week  in  the  year. 

Old  iron  rods,  both  large  and  small,  are  to  be  procured  cheap 
at  the  ironmongers.  These  old  rusty  rods,  painted  green,  or  lead 
color,  are  excellent  stakes  for  supporting  flowers,  and  do  not 
vear  out.  The  slighter  rods  are  very  firm  upright  supporters 
r Carnations,  Pinks,  &c„  while  the  taller  and  larger  rods  are 


ON  LAYING  OUT. 


27 


the  firmest  and  best  poles  for  hollyhocks,  sunflowers,  and  the 
larger  class  of  plants.  Fix  the  flower  stem  to  its  stake  with 
string,  or  the  tape  of  the  bass  matting,  soaked  in  water  to  pre- 
vent its  cracking,  and  tie  it  sufficiently  tight  to  prevent  the  wind 
tearing  it  from  its  position.  Tie  the  large  stems  in  three  places 
for  security. 

The  term  Deciduous , applied  to  shrubs,  signifies  that  they 
shed  their  leaves  every  winter. 

Herbaceous  plants,  signify  those  plants  whose  roots  are  not 
woody,  such  as  stocks,  wallflowers,  <fec.  &c. 

Fifows-rooted  plants,  are  those  whose  roots  shoot  out  small 
fibers,  such  as  Polyanthuses,  violets,  &c. 

Tuberous- rooted  plants,  signify  those  roots  which  form  and 
grow  into  little  tubes,  such  as  Anemones,  Ranunculuses,  &c. 

PERENNIALS. 

Perennials  are  flowers  of  many  years’  duration  ; and  they 
multiply  themselves  most  abundantly  by  suckers,  offsets,  parting 
the  roots,  &c.  They  require  little  trouble  beyond  taking  care  to 
renew  the  soil  every  year  or  two  by  a somewhat  plentiful  supply 
from  the  compost  heap ; and  by  separating  the  offsets,  and  part- 
ing the  roots  in  autumn,  to  strengthen  the  mother  plant.  When 
the  flowers  are  past  and  the  stems  have  decayed,  then  the  opera- 
tion may  take  place.  Choose  a showery  day  for  transplanting 
the  roots,  or  give  them  a moderate  watering  to  fix  them  in  their 
fresh  places.  When  you  transplant  a flower  root,  dig  a hole  with 
your  trowel  sufficiently  large  to  give  the  fibers  room  to  lie  freely 
and  evenly  in  the  ground. 

I have,  throughout  my  little  work,  laid  great  stress  upon  pos- 
sessing a heap  of  compost,  ready  to  apply  to  roots  and  shrubs 
every  spring  and  autumn.  Wherever  the  soil  is  good  the  flowers 


28 


ladies’  flower  gardener. 


will  bloom  handsomely ; and  no  lady  will  be  disappointed  of  that 
pleasure,  if  a compost  heap  forms  one  essential,  in  a hidden  cor- 
ner of  the  flower  garden.  If  you  raise  your  perennials  from 
seed,  sow  it  in  the  last  week  in  March  in  a bed  of  light  earth,  in 
the  open  ground.  Let  the  bed  be  in  a genial,  warm  situation, 
and  divide  it  into  small  compartments  ; a compartment  for  each 
sort  of  seed. 

Sow  the  seed  thin,  and  rake  or  break  the  earth  over  them  finely. 
Let  the  larger  seed  be  sown  half  an  inch  deep,  and  the  smaller 
seed  a quarter  of  an  inch.  Water  the  beds  in  dry  weather  often 
with  a watering  pot,  not  a jug.  The  rose  of  the  watering  pot 
distributes  the  water  equally  among  the  seedlings ; whereas, 
water  dashed  upon  them  from  a jug  falls  in  masses,  and  forms 
holes  in  the  light  earth,  besides  prostrating  the  delicate  seedling. 

About  the  end  of  May,  the  seedlings  will  be  fit  to  remove  into 
another  nursery  bed,  to  gain  strength  till  October ; or  be  planted 
at  once  where  they  are  to  remain.  Put  the  plants  six  inches 
apart,  and  water  them  moderately,  to  settle  the  earth  about  their 
roots. 

But  it  is  rarely  required  to  sow  seed  for  perennial  plants,— 
they  multiply  so  vigorously  and  quickly  of  themselves,  by  offsets ; 
and  cuttings  may  be  made  of  the  flower  stalks  in  May  and  June 
in  profusion. 

The  double  Scarlet  lychnis , and  those  plants  which  rise  with 
firm  flower  stems,  make  excellent  cuttings,  and  grow  freely  when 
planted  in  moist  weather.  Double  Rockets , Lychnidea , and  many 
others,  succeed  well. 

Carnation  and  pink  seedlings  must  be  taken  great  care  of. 
They  will  be  ready  to  plant  out  about  the  middle  of  June,  and  as 
innumerable  varieties  spring  from  sowing  seed,  they  should  be 
planted  carefully  in  a bed  by  themselves  six  inches  asunder,  and 
they  will  flower  the  following  year,  when  you  $an  choose  the 


ON  LAYING  OUT. 


29 


colors  you  most  approve.  Carnations  properly  rank  under  the 
head  of  biennials ; but  pinks  are  strictly  perennial  plants,  and 
much  has  been  written  upon  this  hardy  and  beautiful  flower.  It 
comes  originally  from  a temperate  climate,  therefore  the  pink 
loves  shade  : the  fervid  sunbeams  cause  its  flowers  to  languish  and 
droop.  You  may  give  them  an  eastern  aspect. 

Be  careful  to  watch  pinks  when  they  are  budding,  and  do  not 
allow  two  buds  to  grow  side  by  side.  Pinch  off  the  smaller  bud, 
which  would  only  weaken  its  companion.  Keep  the  plants  free 
from  decayed  leaves,  and  gently  stir  the  earth  round  them  occa- 
sionally with  your  small  trowel.  This  operation  refreshes  them. 
Stake  them  neatly,  that  they  may  not  fall  prostrate  after  rain. 

If  you  wish  to  preserve  any  particular  pink,  let  it  grow  in  a 
pot,  or  upon  a raised  platform,  that  it  may  be  placed  beyond  the, 
reach  of  hares,  rabbits,  or  poultry,  and  be  more  easily  sheltered 
from  long  and  severe  frost  or  rains  in  winter,  and  from  the  dry 
heats  in  summer,  either  of  which  destroys  the  beauty  of  the 
flower.  The  pots  can  be  sunk  in  the  ground  in  fine  weather.  Do 
not  hide  your  pinks  among  larger  flowers  : let  them  be  distinctly 
seen.  If  you  water  pinks  too  much,  their  roots  become  rotten 
and  if  you  suffer  them  to  be  too  dry,  they  become  diseased.  Be- 
ware of  extremes.  The  best  rule  is  to  keep  them  just  moist. 
A fine  pink  should  not  have  sharp-pointed  flower  leaves  ; they 
should  be  round  and  even  at  their  edges,  and  the  colors  should  be 
well  defined,  not  running  one  into  the  other.  The  flower  should 
be  large ; it  should  possess  a great  many  leaves,  and  form  a sort 
of  dome.  Piping  and-  slipping,  is  the  most  expeditious  mode  of 
propagating  plants  from  any  selected  pink. 

Pansies , violets , &c.,  are  very  easily  propagated  by  parting  the 
roots  when  the  flowers  are  past.  Pansies  are  very  beautiful 
flowers  ; and  cuttings  of  their  young  shoots  will  grow  very  freely 
if  kept  moist  and  shaded  for  some  little  time.  By  refreshing  the 


30 


LADIES7  FLOWER  GARDENER. 


soil  every  year,  you  insure  large  flowers.  Pansies  and  violets 
bloom  early  in  the  spring. 

Hepaticas  must  be  parted  like  violets.  They  appear  so  very 
early  in  the  year  that  no  garden  should  exist  without  these  gay 
and  modest  flowers.  The  leaves  appear  after  the  flovter  has  past 
away. 

The  Polyanthus  blooms  among  the  early  tribe.  In  planting 
this  flower,  be  careful  to  insert  the  roots  deep  in  the  soil,  so  that 
the  leaves  may  rest  upon  it,  for  the  roots  are  produced  high  upon 
the  stem,  and  those  roots  must  be  enabled  to  shoot  into  the  soil. 
The  polyanthus,  like  almost  every  other  flower,  loves  a good  soil, 
with  a mixture  of  sand. 

In  dividing  these  fibrous-rooted  perennial  plants,  take  only  the 
strong  offsets,  with  plenty  of  fibers  attached  to  them. 

Polyanthuses,  auriculas,  double  daisies,  double  camomile,  Lon- 
don pride,  violets,  hepaticas,  thrift,  primroses,  gentianella,  &c., 
succeed  well,  taken  up  and  divided  in  September,  for  they  will 
all  have  done  flowering  by  that  time.  Indeed,’  all  perennial 
fibrous-rooted  plants  may  be  taken  up  in  October  to  have  their 
roots  parted,  and  the  soil  refreshed  round  them. 

Peonies,  and  all  knob-rooted  plants,  should  be  taken  up  in 
October  to  part  their  roots  and  transplant  them  to  their  intended 
positions. 

The  saxifrage  has  very  small  roots,  which  are  apt  to  be  lost  in 
borders  if  not  very  carefully  looked  after.  Like  the  anemone, 
&c.,  sift  the  earth  well  for  them. 

Dahlias  require  a word  or  two  upon  their  culture.  They  love 
sand,  therefore  allow  them  plenty  of  it,  but  do  not  put  manure 
to  their  roots,  which  throws  them  into  luxuriant  leaf  and  stem, 
to  the  deterioration  of  the  flower.  Peat  mould  is  good,  if  you 
can  obtain  it,  to  mix  with  the  sand,  as  it  assists  the  flower  in  de- 
veloping stripes  and  spots.  Train  each  plant  upright,  upon  one 


ON  LAYING  OUT. 


31 


stem  only,  and  give  it  a strong  stake  to  support  its  weight,  which 
soon  succumbs  under  gusts  of  wind.  Plant  them  in  open  and 
airy  places.  When  the  stems  become  black,  take  them  up,  sepa- 
rate the  roots,  and  plunge  them  into  a box  of  ashes,  barley  chaff, 
or  sand,  to  protect  them  through  the  winter.  Plant  them  out  in 
May. 

Dahlias  grow  from  cuttings,  which  require  care  and  a hot-bed 
to  do  well,  but  they  multiply  themselves  very  sufficiently  without 
that  trouble. 

It  is  a great  perfection  to  see  every  tall  plant  in  a flower-garden 
well  staked,  and  trimmed  from  dead  straggling  shoots.  Let  no 
branches  trail  upon  the  border,  but,  as  in  the  ease  of  Chrysan* 
themums,  cut  away  the  lowest  branches  or  shoots,  that  each 
plant  may  stand  erect  and  neat  in  its  order,  without  intermed- 
dling in  its  neighbor’s  concerns.  There  will  be  plenty  of  em- 
ployment all  through  the  summer  in  watching  the  growth  of 
your  plants,  in  cutting  away  decayed  stems,  and  trimming  off 
dead  leaves.  Let  nothing  remain  in  the  flower’s  way  after  the 
brightness  of  its  bloom  has  past  by  : cut  off  the  drooping  flower 
before  it  runs  to  seed,  which  only  tends  to  weaken  the  other 
flowers,  and  leave  only  the  finest  flower  to  produce  seed  on  each 
plant. 

Perennials  grow  remarkably  fine  always  in  newly  turned-up 
ground,  but  they  gradually  degenerate  if  they  are  allowed  to  re- 
main above  two  years  without  replacing  the  substance  they  have 
exhausted  in  the  soil.  Add  every  year  to  that  substance,  by 
liberal  supplies  from  the  compost  heap. 

Be  careful  to  multiply  your  supply  of  jasmines,  honeysuckles, 
&c.,  by  cuttings  in  their  due  season. 

I subjoin  a list  of  the  hardier  sorts  of  fibrous  rooted  Perennials, 
eligible  to  adorn  a garden,  from  which  my  readers  may  stock 
their  borders. 


32 


ladies’  flower  gardener. 


LIST  OF  HARDY 

Aster,  or  Starwort 
Large  blue  Alpine 
Common  Starwort,  or  Michaelmas 
Daisy 

Early  Pyrenean 
Blue  Italian  Starwort 
Catesby’s  Starwort 
Dwarf  narrow-leaved  Starwort 
Midsummer  Starwort 
Autumnal  white  Starwort,  with 
broad  leaves 
Tripolian  Starwort 
Divaricated-branched 
Virginian  Starwort,  with  spiked 
blue  flowers 
Early  blue  Starwort 
Rose  Starwort 

Latest  Starwort,  large  blue  flowers 
New  England  Starwort 
Red-flowering 
Apocynum , Dogsbane 
Red-flowering 
Orange-colored 
Syrian 

Arum. , Italian  large-veined  leaf 
Asdepias , Swallow-wort 
White 
Yellow 

Astragalus , Milk-vetch 
Alysson , White 
Yellow 
Violet 

Borage , the  Eastern 
Bachelor’s  Button 
Double  red 
Double  white 
Double  Ragged  Robin 
Campanula , or  Bell-flower 
Double  blue 
Double  white 

Double  blue,  and  white  nettle- 
leaved 

Caltha,  double -flowered 
Marigold 

Cassia  of  Maryland 
Pinks , double  pheasant’s  eye 
Dobson 
Deptford 
Cob  white 


PERENNIALS. 

Red  cob 
White  stock 
Damask 
Mountain 
Matted 

Old  man’s  head 
Painted  lady 

Clove  pink,  and  * many  othei 
varieties 

Stock  July -flower,  the  Brompton 
Double  scarlet  Brompton 
Single  scarlet 
Purple 

White  Brompton 
Queen  stock 
Purple  double 
Striped  double 
Single  of  each  sort 
Twickenham  stock 
Lichnidea , early  blue 
Spotted-stalked,  with  purple  spikes 
of  flowers 

Virginia,  with  large  umbels 
Low  trailing  purple 
Carolina,  with  stiff  shining  leaves, 
and  deeper  purple  flowers 
Cyanus , broad-leaved 
Narrow-leaved 
Lychnis , or  Campion 
Single  scarlet  lychnis 
Double  scarlet  lychnis 
Catchfly,  double  flowers 
Hepaticas,  single  white 
Single  blue 
Single  red 
Double  red 
Double  blue 
Lineria , toad  flax 
Purple 
Yellow 
Bee  Larkspur 
Fraxinella , white 
Red 

Gentiania , great  yellow 
Gentianclla , blue 
Globularia.  blue  daisy 
Fox-glove , red 
White 
Iron-colored 


ON  LAYING  OUT. 


S3 


Perennial  Sun-flower 

Double  yellow,  and  several  other 
species. 

Cyclamen , red 
While 
Goldy  Locks 
Chelone , white 
Red 

Lily  of  the  Valley , common 
Double-flowering 
Solomon’s  Seal , single 
Double 

Filapendula,  or  Drop  wort 
Columbines , common  blue 
Double  red 
Double  white 
Double  striped 
Starry,  double  and  single 
Early-flowering  Canada 
Thalictrum , feathered  columbines 
Pulsatilla,  blue  Pasque  flower 
Orobus , bitter  vetch 
Saxifrage,  double  white 
Thick-leaved 
Purple 

Veronica,  upright  blue 
Dwarf  blue 
Hungarian 
Blush 

Golden  Rod,  many  species 
Valerian,  red  garden  Valerian 
White  garden 

Rudbekia,  American  sun-flower 
Dwarf  Virginia,  with  large  yellow 
flowers 

Dwarf  Carolina,  with  narrow  red 
reflexed  petals  and  purple  florets 
Virginia,  with  yellow  rays  and  red 
florets 

Tall  yellow,  with  purple  stalks 
and  heart-shaped  leaves 
Taller,  with  yellow  flowers  and 
large  five-lobed  leaves,  and  those 
on  the  stalks  single 
Tallest  yellow,  with  narrower 
leaves,  which  are  all  of  five 
lobes 

Pulmonaria,  Lungwort 
Common 
American 


Monarda,  purple 
Scarlet 

Ephemeron , Spider-wort,  or  flowers 
of  a day 
White 
Blue 

Jacea,  American  knapweed 
Primrose,  double  yellow 
Double  scarlet 
White 

Polyanthus,  many  varieties 
Auriculas,  many  varieties 
Violets,  double  blue 
Double  white 
Double  red 
Russian 
Banksia 

Violet , the  Major 
London-pride , or  None-so-pretty 
Day-lily,  red 
Yellow 

Fumitory,  the  yellow 
White 

Bulbous-rooted 
American  forked 

Aconite,  Monk’s-hood,  or  Wolf ’s-bane 
Blue  Monk’s-hood 
Yellow 
White 

Wholesome  Wolf’s-bane 
Winter  Aconite 
Hellebore,  or  Bear’s-foot 
Common  black  hellebore 
Green-flowered 
White  Hellebore 
Christmas  Rose 
Geranium,  Crane’s-bill 
Bloody  Crane’s-bill 
Blue 
Roman 

Bladder-cupped 

Daisies,  common  double  red  garden 
daisy 
White 

Double  variegated 
Cock’s-comb  daisies,  white  and  red 
Hen  and  chicken,  white  and  red 
Dahlias,  many  varieties 
Peony,  double  red 
Double  white 


2* 


34 


ladies’  flower  gardener. 


Double  purple 

Male,  with  large  single  flowers 
Sweet-smelling  Portugal 
Double  rose-colored 
Silphium , bastard  Chrysanthemum 
Iris,  Fleur-de-lis,  or  flags 
The  German  violet-colored 
Variegated,  cr  Hungarian,  purple 
and  yellow 
Chalcedonian  iris 
Greater  Dalmatian  iris 
There  are  several  other  varieties 
of  Irises,  all  very  hardy  and  very 
beautiful  plants 
Cardinal  Flowers , scarlet 
Blue 

Rocket , double  white 
Balm  of  Gilead , sweet-scented  ; must 
be  sheltered  in  winter 


Everlasting  Pea 
Eupatorium , several  varieties 
Eryngo , blue 
White 

Mountain,  purple  and  violet 
There  are  some  other  varieties 
Snap  Dragon , or  CalPs-snout 
Red 
White 
Variegated 
Moth  Mullein 
•Angelica 

Asphodelus , King’s-spear 
Lupins , perennial,  blue-flowered 
Ononis,  Rest-har 
Large  yellow-flowered 
Tradescantia , or  Virginia  Spider- 
wort 


The  Saxifrage  is  propagated  by  cuttings  and  offsets,  which  the 
roots  produce  abundantly.  Take  the  offsets  and  plant  them  out 
in  August.  The  double  white  saxifrage  is  a beautiful  flower,  and 
blooms  early  in  the  spring.  The  pyramidal  saxifrage  is  a very 
handsome  decorative  flower,  but  it  must  be  planted  in  little  clumps 
to  make  a showy  appearance. 

October  is  the  busy  month  for  transplanting  and  removing  the 
offsets  of  all  perennial  and  biennial  plants.  In  this  month  every 
flower  of  summer  has  passed  away,  and  the  garden  is  free  to 
receive  all  new  arrangements  in  its  future  dispositions.  Golden 
rod,  Michaelmas  daisies,  everlasting  sun-flower,  and  other  branch- 
ing plants,  will  require  taking  up  every  four  years,  to  part  the 
main  root  into  separate  plants,  and  replace  them  in  the  ground 
again.  Peonies,  lilies  of  the  valley,  fraxinellas,  monk's-hood,  flag- 
leaved irises,  &c.,  must  be  increased  or  removed  when  required. 
All  this  is  most  effectually  done  in  October. 

In  the  same  month,  finish  all  that  is  to  be  effected  among  the 
perennial  tribe.  Campanulas,  lychnises,  polyanthuses,  violets, 
aconites,  cyclajnens,  gentianella,  yellow  gentian,  double  daisies. 


ON  LAYING  OUT. 


35 


hepaticas,  saxifrage,  <fcc.,  must  be  attended  to,  and  propagated, 
by  dividing  the  roots,  before  October  closes.  November  is  the 
season  of  fogs  and  severe  frosts : if  a lady  is  prudent,  she  will 
perform  all  these  needful  operations  in  October,  and  November 
will  have  no  alarms  for  her. 

All  the  double-flowering  plants,  such  as  double  sweet-william, 
double  rockets,  double  scarlet  lychnis,  (fee.,  should  be  placed  in 
sheltered  situations  in  October,  to  weather  out  the  storms  of 
winter.  Double  flowers  are  very  handsome,  and  deserve  a little 
care. 

The  most  charming  little  perennial  flower  which  can  adorn  a 
lady’s  garden  is  the  scarlet  verbena,  but  it  is  very  difficult  to  pre- 
serve through  the  winter.  Its  beauty,  however,  repays  the  care 
which  may  be  bestowed  upon  it.  This  tender  plant — the  only 
really  tender  root  which  I admit  into  my  work — is  not  only  de- 
sirable from  its  fine,  full  scarlet  blossoms,  but  it  blooms  from 
April  to  November.  The  scarlet  verbena  loves  a rich,  light,  dry 
border  or  bed,  in  a sunny  situation  ; they  delight  also  in  rock- 
work,  where  they  have  been  known  to  exist  through  the  winter. 
Plant  the  roots  about  six  inches  apart  in  the  middle  of  April,  and 
keep  pegging  down  the  shoots  as  they  throw  themselves  along 
the  bed.  A profusion  of  flowers  and  plants  are  produced  by  this 
means.  A bed  or  border  sloping  to  the  south  is  the  best  situa- 
tion for  the  scarlet  verbena. 


36 


ladies’  flower  gardener. 


CHAPTER  IV 


BULBS  AND  TUBEROUS-ROOTED  FLOWERS — PERENNIALS. 

SHALL  give  the  bulbous  and  tuberous-rooted  flowers  a chap 


ter  to  themselves.  They  are  the  earliest  treasures  of  the 


flower-garden,  and  deserve  especial  notice.  There  was  a pe- 
riod when  two  hundred  pounds  was  offered  for  a hyacinth  root,  and 
even  the  enormous  sum  of  six  hundred  pounds  was  given  for  a Sem- 
per Augustus  tulip,  by  the  Dutch  tulip  fanciers.  But  though  a few 
florists  are  still  particularly  nice  with  respect  to  their  bulbs,  the 
time  is  past  for  paying  such  splendid  prices ; and  such  an  inex- 
haustible variety  offer  themselves  to  our  notice  now,  that  we  are 
somewhat  puzzled  in  making  a choice  collection.  Seed  produces 
immense  numbers  yearly,  and  an  infinite  variety  of  new  colors  in 
each  species.  The  florist  is  lost  in  admiration  of  the  magnificent 
blooms  which  meet  the  eye  in  every  flower-garden  which  is  care- 
fully attended  to. 

Bulbs  love  a mixture  of  garden  soil  and  sand,  well  mixed,  and 
dug  about  two  spades  deep  to  lighten  it.  Break  the  mould  fine, 
and  rake  the  surface  even.  Plant  the  bulbs  four  inches  deep, 
and  let  them  be  six  inches  apart,  placing  the  bulb  with  care  into 
the  dibbled  hole,  and  pressing  the  earth  gently  round  each.  All 
bulbs  should  be  replanted  in  September,  and  taken  out  of  the 
ground  when  they  have  done  flowering.  When  the  leaves  and 
stems  decay,  dig  them  neatly  up,  in  dry  weather,  with  your 
garden  fork  ; take  the  offsets  carefully  from  the  main  root ; spread 
them  out  to  dry  on  a mat,  and  put  them  in  a cool  dry  place  to 
plant  again  in  September. 


TRANSPLANTING  BULBS. 


37 


The  common  bulbs,  such  as  Snowdrops , Crocuses , &c.,  may  be 
left  two  or  three  years  untouched  ; but  at  the  end  of  that  period 
take  them  up,  to  separate  the  offsets  and  small  roots  from  the 
mother  plants.  You  can  replant  them  immediately,  taking  care 
to  thin  the  clumps,  and  separate  each  root  six  inches  from  its 
neighbor,  that  they  may  rise  healthy,  and  throw  out  fine  blooms. 

Narcissuses , Jonquils , and  Irises , may  also  remain  two  years 
untouched ; but  if  annually  taken  up,  they  will  flower  finer,  and 
for  these  reasons. 

By  taking  up  your  bulbs  as  soon  as  their  leaves  and  stems  de- 
cay, it  not  only  allows  you  to  separate  the  offsets,  which  weaken 
the  parent  bulb,  but  it  prevents  their  receiving  any  damage  from 
long  drought,  or  the  equally  destructive  moisture  of  heavy  rains, 
which  would  set  them  growing  again  before  their  time,  and  ex- 
haust them.  The  two  or  three  months  in  which  they  are  laid  by 
contributes  to  their  strength,  by  allowing  them  that  period  of 
complete  rest. 

The  autumn- flowering  bulbs,  such  as  the  Colchicums , the  Au- 
tumnal Crocus , the  Yellow  Autumnal  Narcissus , &c.,  should  be 
taken  up  in  May  or  early  in  June,  when  they  are  at  rest.  Trans- 
plant them  now,  if  you  wish  to  remove  them  ; part  the  offsets, 
and  plant  them  six  inches  apart.  If  you  keep  them  out  of  the 
ground,  put  them  in  a dry,  shady  place,  till  the  middle  of  July 
or  August,  when  you  must  plant  them  again,  to  blow  in  the  au- 
tumn. 

Be  careful  to  take  up  bulbs  as  soon  as  the  leaves  decay.  If 
they  are  incautiously  left  in  the  ground  beyond  that  period,  they 
begin  to  form  the  bud  for  the  next  year’s  flowers  ; and  the  check 
of  a removal  would  injure  them.  They  might  produce  flowers 
in  due  time,  but  they  would  be  weakly. 

The  little  offsets  will  not  flower  for  a year  or  two.  They  may 


88 


ladies’  flower  gardener. 


be  consigned  to  a nursery-bed  to  remain  for  that  time,  in  order  to 
swell  and  strengthen  by  themselves. 

If  you  wish  to  procure  new  varieties  from  seed,  it  must  be 
sown  in  August,  The  healthiest  flower-stalk  should  be  chosen, 
and  deposited  in  pots  or  boxes  of  fine  light  earth,  for  the  con- 
venience of  removing  under  shelter  in  wet  or  frost.  Keep  the 
pots  or  boxes  in  the  shade  during  the  heats,  but,  as  the  cold 
weather  advances,  remove  them  to  a warm  sheltered  spot.  Litter 
will  shelter  them  from  the  frost,  if  you  cannot  command  any 
other  covering.  The  plants  will  appear  early  the  following  May : 
they  must  be  kept  very  clear  from  weeds,  and  be  moderately 
watered  in  dry  weather.  These  seedlings  must  be  transplanted 
every  summer  to  be  thinned,  and  placed  further  apart  from  each 
other  till  they  blow,  when  they  may  be  removed  into  the  flower- 
beds. 

This  method  is  troublesome,  and  requires  patience.  Tulip 
seedlings  are  seven  years  before  they  flower,  and  a lady  may  find 
her  patience  severely  tried  in  waiting  for  their  blooms.  Seven 
years  is  a large  portion  of  human  life.  If  you  can  persevere, 
however,  you  will  be  rewarded  by  beautiful  varieties  of  new  colors 
and  stripes. 

Fine  tulips  should  have  six  leaves,  three  on  the  outside  and 
three  on  the  inside,  and  the  former  should  be  broader  than  the 
latter.  The  stripes  upon  the  tulip  should  also  be  defined  and  dis- 
tinct, not  mixing  with  the  ground  tints. 

Hyacinth  seedlings  are  four  years  before  they  flower ; this  is 
not  so  harassing  a period  as  the  Tulip  requires ; but  every  plea- 
sure has  its  counterbalance.  If  you  will  have  fine  flowers,  you 
must  wait  for  them.  These  bulbs  love  a sunny  situation. 

The  Orchis  tribe  prefer  a moist  ground  and  a northern  aspect. 
Columella  says,  that  when  orchis  bulbs  are  sown  in  autumn,  they 
germinate  and  bear  flowers  in  ApriL 


BULBOUS  PLANTS. 


89 


The  Colchicums  or  narcissus  are  hardy  bulbs,  and  will  grow  in 
any  sort  of  ground  ; only,  the  better  the  soil  is,  the  finer  they 
will  flower. 

The  Guernsey  Lily  and  Belladonna  will  not  thrive  in  the  open 
ground,  therefore  it  is  needless  to  speak  of  those  very  splendid 
flowers. 

The  Lily  of  the  Valley,  though  scarcely  to  be  classed  among 
the  lily  tribe,  is  a beautiful  flower,  and  as  fragrant  as  it  is  lovely. 
They  must  be  multiplied  by  dividing  the  roots,  which  should  be 
parted  with  a knife,  as  they  are  very  intricate : do  this  in  Decem- 
ber. Plant  them  three  inches  deep  in  the  ground,  and  disturb 
them  as  little  as  you  can  help,  as  they  do  not  like  to  be  often 
moved.  They  are  larger  in  their  flowers  when  grown  in  the 
shade,  but  they  are  sweeter  in  perfume  in  the  sun’s  full  rays. 
Thin  broad  leaves  are  sufficient  shelter  to  the  flowers. 

All  bulbs  love  salt : be  careful,  therefore,  to  throw  a portion 
of  common  salt  or  brine  upon  your  compost  heap.  My  cousin, 
Cuthbert  W.  Johnson,  Esq.,  in  his  “ Observations  on  the  Em- 
ployment of  Salt,”  quotes  a passage  in  a letter  addressed  to  him 
by  Mr.  Thomas  Hogg,  the  eminent  florist,  upon,  the  advantages 
of  salt  in  the  cultivation  of  flowers.  I will  transcribe  it  here  : — 

“ From  the  few  experiments  that  I have  tried  with  salt  as  a garden  ma- 
nure, I am  fully  prepared  to  bear  testimony  to  its  usefulness.  In  a treatise 
upon  flowers,  published  about  six  years  since,  I remarked,  that  the  applica- 
tion of  salt,  and  its  utility  as  a manure,  was  yet  imperfectly  understood.  It 
is  a matter  of  uncertainty,  whether  it  acts  directly  as  a manure,  or  only  as  a 
kind  of  spice  or  seasoning,  thereby  rendering  the  soil  a more  palatable  food 
for  plants. 

“ The  idea  that  first  suggested  itself  to  my  mind,  arose  from  contemplating 
the  successful  culture  of  hyacinths  in  Holland.  This  root,  though  not  in- 
digenous to  the  country,  may  be  said  to  be  completely  naturalized  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Haerlem,  where  it  grows  luxuriantly  in  a deep,  sandy,  allu- 
vial soil:  yet  one  great  cause  of  its  free  gro  wth,  I considered,  was  owing  to 
the  saline  atmosphere  : this  induced  me  to  mix  salt  in  the  compost ; and  I 


40 


ladies’  flower  gardener. 


am  satisfied  that  no  hyacinths  will  grow  well  at  a distance  from  the  sea 
without  it.  I am  also  of  opinion,  that  the  numerous  bulbous  tribe  of  Amaryl- 
lisses,  especially  those  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  ; Ixias,  Aliums,  which 
include  Onions,  Garlic,  Shalots,  &c.,  Anemones,  various  species  of  the  Lily, 
Antholyza,  Colchicum,  Crinum,  Cyclamens,  Narcissus,  Iris,  Gladiolus,  Ran- 
unculus, Scilla,  and  many  others,  should  either  have  salt  or  sea-sand  in  the 
mould  used  for  them. 

u I invariably  use  salt  as  an  ingredient  in  my  compost  for  carnations ; a 
plant  which,  like  wheat,  requires  substantial  soil,  and  all  the  strength  and 
heat  of  the  summer,  to  bring  it  to  perfection ; and  I believe  I might  say, 
without  boasting,  that  few  excel  me  in  blooming  that  flower.” 

Colchicums,  the  Autumnal  Narcissus,  Amaryllis,  and  the  Au- 
tumn Crocus,  should  be  planted  in  August,  to  blow  in  September 
and  October. 

Replant  all  the  bulbous  tribe  by  the  end  of  October,  at  the 
latest.  Choose  a mild,  dry  day  to  put  them  in  the  ground,  and 
let  each  bulb  be  six  or  nine  inches  distant  from  its  companion. 
All  bulbs  become  weak  by  being  placed  too  closely  together,  the 
soil  becoming  soon  exhausted. 

Bulbs  of  the  more  choice  varieties  are  better  attended  to  if 
they  can  be  placed  in  beds  or  compartments  by  themselves  ; for 
they  are  more  easily  sheltered  from  frost  and  rain  when  in  a body. 
The  eye,  also,  is  more  delighted  by  the  beautiful  variety  en  masse. 
Their  favorite  soil,  too,  can  be  composed  and  preserved  for  them 
more  exclusively,  unexhausted  by  the  roots  of  larger  plants  around 
them.  Some  of  the  commoner  sorts  can  be  planted  out  in 
patches,  to  add  to  the  gay  appearance  of  the  borders,  among  the 
spring  flowers. 

Martagons,  orange  lilies,  and  bulbs,  of  tall  growth,  should 
never  be  planted  among  the  smaller  tribe ; their  large  bulbs 
would  exhaust  the  soil,  and  weaken  the  smaller  flowers.  They 
look  very  handsome  in  borders  and  plots,  placed  near,  or  in,  their 
center. 


41 


TUBEROUS-ROOTED  FLOWERS. 

LIST  OF  BULEOUS  AND  TUBEROUS-ROOTED  FLOWERS. 


Amaryllis , comprising  the  autumnal 
yellow  Narcissus 
Spring  ditto 

Crocus  vernus , or  spring-flowering 
crocus 

Common  yellow 
Large  yellow 
Yellow,  with  black  stripes 
White 

White,  with  blue  stripes 
Blue,  with  white  stripes 
Deep  blue 
Light  blue 

White,  with  purple  bottom 
Scotch,  or  black  and  white  striped 
Cream-colored 

Autumnal  flowering  Crocus , of  the 
following  varieties  : — 

True  saffron  crocus,  with  bluish 
flower,  and  golden  stigma,  which 
is  the  saffron 

Common  autumnal  crocus,  with 
deep  blue  flowers 
With  light  blue  flowers 
Many-flowered 

Snowdrop , the  small  spring  flowering 
Common  single 
Double 

Leucojum , or  great  summer  snowdrop 
Great  summer  snowdrop  with  an- 
gular stalk : a foot  high,  and 
two  or  three  flowers  in  each 
sheath 

Taller  great  snowdrop,  with  many 
flowers 

Ornithogalum , or  Star  of  Bethlehem 
Great  white  pyramidal,  with  nar- 
row leaves 

White,  with  broadsword-shaped 
leaves  spreading  on  the  ground 
Yellow 

Pyrenean,  with  whitish  green 
flowers 

Star  of  Naples,  with  hanging 
flowers 

Umbellated,  producing  its  flowers 
in  umbels,  or  spreading  bunches, 
at  the  top  of  the  stalk 
Low  yellow  umbellated 


Erythronium , dens  canis,  or  dog’s 
tooth 

Round-leaved,  with  red  flowers 
Same,  with  white  flowers 
The  same,  yellow 
Long  narrow-leaved,  with  purple 
and  with  white  flowers 
Grape  hyacinth 
Purple 
Blue 
White 

Musk  hyacinth 

White 

Ash-colored 

Blue  feathered  hyacinth 
Purple 

Musky,  or  sweet-scented,  with  full 
purple  flowers 

The  same,  with  large  purple  and 
yellow  flowers 

Great  African  Muscaria,  with  sul- 
phur-colored flower 
Fritillaria  checkered  tulip 

Early  purple,  variegated,  or  check- 
ered with  white 

Black,  checkered  with  yellow  spots 
Yellow,  checkered  with  purple 
Dark  purple,  with  yellow  spots, 
and  flowers  growing  in  an  um- 
bel 

Persian  lily,  with  tall  stalks,  and 
dark  purple  flowers  growing  in 
a pyramid 

Branching  Persian  lily 
Corona  Imperialism  crown  imperial,  a 
species  of  Fritillaria 
Common  red 
Common  yellow 
Yellow-striped 
Sulphur-colored 
Large-flowering 
Double  of  each  variety 
Crown  upon  crown,  or  with  two 
whorls  of  flowers 
Triple  crown  upon  crown,  or  with 
three  tiers  of  flowers  one  above 
another 

Gold-striped  leaved 
Silver-striped  leaved 


42 


ladies’  flower  gardener. 


Tulip,  early  dwarf  tulip 
Tall,  or  most  common  tulip 
Early,  yellow  and  red  striped 
White  and  red  striped 
White  and  purple  striped 
White  and  rose  striped 
Tall,  or  late-flowering,  with  white 
bottoms,  striped  with  brown 
White  bottoms,  striped  with  violet 
or  black  brown 

White  bottoms,  striped  with  red 
or  vermilion 

Yellow  bottoms,  striped  with  dif- 
ferent colors,  called  Bizarres 

Double  Tulip , yellow  and  red 
White  and  red 

Gladiolus , corn  flag,  or  sword  lily, 
common,  with  sword-shaped 
leaves,  and  a reddish  purple 
flower  ranged  on  one  side  of  the 
stalk 

The  same,  with  white  flowers 
Italian  with  reddish  flowers  ranged 
on  both  sides  of  the  stalk 
The  same,  with  white  flowers 
Great  red  of  Byzantium 
Narrow  grassy-leaved,  and  a flesh- 
colored  flower,  with  channeled, 
long,  narrow,  four-angled  leaves, 
and  two  bell-shaped  flowers  on 
the  stalk 
Great  Indian 

Anemone , wood  anemone,  with  blue 
flowers 

White  flowers 
Red  flowers 
Double  white 

Garden  Double  Anemone , with  crim- 
son flowers 
Purple 
Red 
Blue 
White 

Red  and  white  striped 
Red,  white,  and  purple 
Rose  and  white 
Blue,  striped  with  white 

Ranunculus , Turkey,  with  a single 
stalk,  and  large  double  blood- 
ed flower 
Yellow-flowered 


Persian,  with  branching  stalk,  ana 
large  double  flowers  of  innumer- 
able varieties,  of  which  there  are 
Very  double  flowers 
Semi,  or  half  double 
(The  double  are  most  beautiful, 
propagated  by  offsets) 
Pancratium , sea  daffodil 

Common  white  sea  Narcissus,  with 
many  flowers  in  a sheath,  and 
tongue-shaped  leaves 
Sclavonian,  with  taller  stems  and 
many  white  flowers,  and  sword- 
shaped leaves 

Broad-leaved  American,  with  large 
white  flowers,  eight  or  ten  in  a 
sheath 

Mexican,  with  two  flowers 
Ceylon,  with  one  flower 
Moly  {Allium),  species  of  garlic  pro- 
ducing flowers 
Broad-leaved  yellow 
Great  broad-leaved,  w’ith  lily 
flowers 

Broad-leaved,  with  white  flowers 
in  large  round  umbels 
Smaller  white  umbellated 
Purple 
Rose-colored 

Fumaria  bulbosa,  or  bulbous-rooted 
fumitory 
Greater  purple 
Hollow-rooted 

American,  with  a forked  flower 
Narcissus , or  daffodil,  common  double 
yellow  daffodil 

Single  yellow,  with  the  middle  cup 
as  long  as  the  petals 
White,  with  yellow  cups 
Double,  with  several  cups,  one 
within  another 

Common  white  narcissus,  with 
single  flowers 
Double  white  narcissus 
Incomparable,  or  great  nonsuch, 
with  double  flowers 
With  single  flowers 
Hoop  petticoat  narcissus,  or  rush- 
leaved daffodil,  with  the  middle 
cup  larger  than  the  petals,  and 
very  broad  at  the  brim 


TUBEROUS-ROOTED  FLOWERS. 


43 


Daffodil,  with  white  reflexed  pe- 
tals, and  golden  cups 
White  daffodil,  with  purple  cups 
Polyanthus  Narcissus , having  many 
small  flowers  on  a stalk,  from 
the  same  sheath.  Of  this  are 
the  following  varieties  : — 
White,  with  white  cups 
Yellow,  with  yellow  cups 
White,  with  yellow  cups 
White,  with  orange  cups 
White,  with  sulphur-colored  cups 
Yellow,  with  orange  cups 
Yellow,  with  sulphur-colored  cups 
With  several  intermediate  varie- 
ties 

Autumnal  narcissus 
Jonquil , common  single 
Large  single 
Common  double 
Double,  with  large  round  roots 
Lilium , the  lily,  common  white  lily 
With  spotted  or  striped  flowers 
With  double  flowers 
With  striped  leaves 
White  lily,  with  hanging  or  pen- 
dent flowers 

Common  orange  lily,  with  large 
single  flowers 
With  double  flowers 
With  striped  leaves 
Fiery,  bulb- bearing  lily,  producing 
bulbs  at  the  joints  of  the  stalks 
Common  narrow-leaved 
Great  broad-leaved 
Many-flowered 
Hoary 

Martagon  lily,  sometimes  called 
Turk's  cap,  from  the  reflexed 
position  of  their  flower-leaves. 
There  are  many  varieties,  and 
which  differ  from  the  other  sorts 
of  lilies  in  having  the  petals  of 
their  flowers  reflexed,  or  turned 
backward.  The  varieties  are — 
Common  red  martagon,  with  very 
narrow  sparsed  leaves,  or  such 
as  grow  without  order  all  over 
the  flower-stalk 
Double  martagon 
White 


Double  white 
White  spotted 

Scarlet,  with  broad  sparsecl  leaves 
Bright  red,  many-flowered,  or  pom- 
pony,  with  short,  grassy,  sparsed 
leaves 

Reddish  hairy  martagon,  with 
leaves  growing  in  whorls  round 
the  stalk 

Great  yellow,  with  pyramidal 
flowers,  spotted 

Purple,  with  dark  spots,  and  broad 
leaves  in  whorls  round  the  stalk, 
or  most  common  Turk’s-cap 
White  spotted  Turk’s-cap 
Canada  martagon,  with  yellowish 
large  flowers  spotted,  and  leaves 
in  whorls 

Campscalense  martagon,  with 
erect  bell-shaped  flowers 
Philadelphia  martagon,  with  two 
erect  bright  purple  flowers 
Squills , sea  onion,  or  lily  hyacinth, 
common  lily  hyacinth,  with  a 
lily  root  and  blue  flower 
Peruvian,  or  broad-leaved  hyacinth 
of  Peru,  with  blue  flowers 
With  white  flowers 
Early  white  starry  hyacinth 
Blue 

Autumnal  starry  hyacinth 
Larger  starry  blue  hyacinth  of  By- 
zantium 

Purple  star  flower  of  Peru 
Italian  blue-spiked  star-flower 
Asphodel  lily , African  blue,  with  a 
tuberous  root 

Tuberose , or  Indian  tuberous  hyacinth. 
It  produces  a small  stem  three 
or  four  feet  high,  adorned  with 
many  white  flowers  of  great  fra- 
grance. 

The  varieties  are, — 

Fine  double  tuberose 
Single  tuberose 
Small-flowered 
Striped-leaved 

Iris  bulbosa , or  bulbous  Iris,  Persia 
with  three  erect  blue  peta 
called  standards,  and  three  rt 
flexed  petals  called  falls,  whic 


44 


ladies’  flower  gardener. 


are  variegated,  called  Persian 
bulbous  iris,  with  a variegated 
flower 

Common  narrow-leaved  bulbous 
iris,  with  a blue  flower 
White 
Yellow 

Blue,  with  white  falls 
Blue,  with  yellow  falls 
Greater  broad-leaved  bulbous  iris, 
with  a deep  blue  flower# 

Bright  purple 
Deep  purple 
Variegated 

Great,  with  broad  and  almost  plain 
or  flat  leaves,  with  blue  flowers 
Purple 

Of  the  above  there  are  many  in- 
termediate varieties 
Hyacinth , eastern,  with  l^rge  flowers. 
Of  these  there  are  many  varie- 
ties, and  of  which  there  are  in- 
numerable intermediate  shades 
or  tints  of  color 
Of  double  sorts  there  are, — 

Blues 

Purple  blues 
Agatha  blues 
Whites 

Whites,  with  yellow  eyes 
Whites,  with  red  eyes 
Whites,  with  violet  or  purple 
eyes 

Whites,  with  rose-colored  eyes 
Whites,  with  scarlet  eyes 
Reds 

Incarnate,  flesh  or  rose-colored 
Of  single  sorts  there  are, — 

Blues,  of  various  shades,  as 
above 
Whites 
Reds 

Rose-colored 

With  many  intermediate  shades 
or  varieties 

(Muscaria) , or  musk  hyacinth 
Ash-colored 
White 

Obsolete  purple 
Greater  yellow  African 
Grape  hyacinth 


Purple 

Blue 

White 

Red 

Monstrous  flowering,  or  blue-fea- 
thered  hyacinth 

Comosed,  or  tufted  purple  hyacinth 
Amethystine  blue  hyacinth 
Nodding,  spiked,  red  hyacinth 
Non-script  small  English  hyacinth, 
or  harebells,  of  the  following 
varieties 

Common  blue  flowers  arranged  on 
one  side  of  the  stalk 
White 

Bell-shaped  blue  hyacinth,  w'ith 
flowers  on  every  side  of  the 
stalk 

Bell-shaped  peach-colored,  with 
flowers  on  one  side  of  the  stalk 
These  are  very  hardy,  propagating 
bjT  offsets 

Hyacinth,  with  a pale  purple 
flower 

Colchicums  in  variety 

Leontice:  lion’s  leaf,  largest  yellow, 

I with  single  foot-stalks  to  the 

•j  leaves 

Smaller  pale  yellow,  with  branched 
foot-stalks  to  the  leaves 
Cyclamen , sow-bread,  European,  or 
common  autumn-flowering,  with 
a purple  flower,  and  angular 
heart-shaped  leaves 
The  same,  with  a black  flower 
The  same,  with  white  flowers 
Red  spring-flowering,  with  heart- 
shaped  leaves,  marbled  with 
white 

Entire  white,  sweet-smelling 
Purple  winter-flowering,  with 
plain  or  circular  shining  green 
leaves 

Purple  round-leaved  autumn-flow- 
ering 

Small,  or  anemone-rooted,  with 
flesh-colored  flowers  appearing 
in  autumn : these  plants  have 
large,  round,  solid  roots ; the 
flowers  and  leaves  rise  immedi- 
ately from  the  root 


FIBROUS-ROOTED  FLOWERS. 


45 


Corona  Regalis , or  royal  crown ; re-  I Aconite , the  winter 
quires  shelter  in  the  winter  I Sisyrinchium 

AURICULA,  RANUNCULUS,  ANEMONE. 


These  early  and  beautiful  flowers  deserve  peculiar  notice,  for 
no  garden  looks  well  without  them,  and  their  bright  tints  delight 
the  eye  and  mind.  The  commonest  kinds  are  handsome  and  use- 
ful in  small  clumps,  and  a little  care  and  trouble  will  raise  superb 
varieties. 

The  Auricula  loves  a soil  composed  of  kitchen-garden  mould, 
sand,  and  cow-dung,  well  mixed  together  ; they  also  like  a cool 
situation.  The  seed  should  be  sown  in  September,  and  when 
sown  give  it  a gentle  watering.  By  sowing  the  seed  in  pots  or 
boxes,  you  can  remove  them  from  heavy  rains,  &c.,  without 
trouble,  and  shelter  them  in  the  outhouses  or  tool-house.  The 
seed  seldom  appears  under  six  months,  and  it  has  been  sometimes 
a twelvemonth  producing  itself,  therefore  be  not  in  despair,  but 
remain  patient ; these  freaks  of  nature  cannot  be  accounted  for. 
When  they  flower,  you  must  single  out  the  plants  which  bear 
the  finest  and  most  choice  blooms,  and  transplant  them  into  pots 
filled  with  the  compost  above  described.  The  common  sorts 
may  be  planted  in  the  borders,  to  remain  out  and  shift  for  them- 
selves. By  keeping  the  fine  auriculas  in  pots,  you  preserve  them 
through  the  winter  easily,  for  heavy  rains  and  cutting  winds  do 
them  harm.  You  can  sink  them  in  their  pots  during  summer  in 
the  flower-beds,  but  let  them  be  sheltered  during  the  winter,  if 
you  wish  to  preserve  the  blooms  uninjured. 

Auriculas  multiply  also  by  suckers,  which  grow  on  their  roots. 
Take  off  these  in  February,  and  plunge  them  into  pots  of  the 
mould  they  like  best,  to  root  freely.  They  will  do  so  in  two 
nonths.  Auriculas  should  not  be  too  much  watered,  as  it  makes 
them  look  sickly,  and  the  leaves  become  yellow.  When  you  pot 


46 


ladies’  flower  gardener. 


the  auriculas,  sink  them  up  to  their  leaves  in  the  soil,  but  do  not 
press  the  mould  round  the  plant,  as  the  flowers  bloom  finest  when 
the  roots  touch  the  sides  of  the  flower  pot. 

The  auricula  is  esteemed  fine  that  has  a low  stem,  a stalk  pro- 
portioned to  the  flower,  the  eye  well  opened,  and  always  dry. 
The  glossy,  the  velvet,  and  the  streaked  auriculas  are  the  most 
admired.  The  stalk  should  be  decked  with  many  flower-bells,  to 
be  handsome  and  healthy. 

Take  care  to  pull  off  all  dead  leaves  round  the  plant  at  all 
times,  that  it  may  appear  neat  and  clean.  Neatness  is  favorable 
to  its  perfect  growth,  as  well  as  decorating  it  to  the  eye. 

The  Ranunculus  does  not  like  being  mixed  up  with  other 
flowers,  and  from  this  “ aristocratic  principle  ” it  is  always  planted 
in  separate  knots. 

This  flower  loves  sun  and  warmth.  The  root  must  be  planted 
in  September,  to  bloom  early  in  the  summer,  and  it  delights  in 
a rich,  moist  soil,  well  dug,  and  raked  soft  and  fine.  When  you 
plant  them  in  beds  or  pots,  they  must  be  sunk  two  inches  deep, 
and  dibble  the  hole  with  a round,  not  pointed,  dibble.  Place  the 
roots  four  or  five  inches  apart,  in  the  warmest  situation  in  your 
garden.  By  planting  ranunculuses  in  pots,  you  can  more  easily 
place  them  in  warm  situations,  and  withdraw  them  from  heavy 
rains.  The  more  room  you  give  these  roots  the  finer  they  will 
grow  and  blow.  If  your  plots  will  allow  of  so  doing,  let  the 
roots  be  planted  six  or  seven  inches  apart.  The  flowers  will 
repay  your  care.  When  ranunculuses  in  pots  have  flowered,  re- 
move them  from  the  August  rains,  or  take  up  the  roots,  to  re- 
plant in  September. 

The  Ranunculus  with  the  double  white  flower  must  not  be 
taken  up  until  September,  when  it  should  be  taken  up  quickly^ 
its  roots  parted,  and  replanted  immediately. 


ANEMONES.  47 

The  Yellow  Ranunculus  with  the  rue  leaf,  prefers  being  potted 
to  being  planted  in  beds. 

The  Ranunculus  propagates  by  seed  as  well  as  offsets.  Sow 
the  seed  as  you  do  that  of  the  auricula. 

The  most  admired . ranunculuses  are  the  white,  the  golden 
yellow,  the  pale  yellow,  the  citron-colored,  and  the  brown  red. 
The  red  is  the  least  esteemed.  The  yellow  ranunculus  speckled 
with  red,  is  handsome, — also  the  rose-color  with  white  inside. 

Great  varieties  are  obtained  by  seed. 

The  Anemones  love  a light  soil,  composed  of  kitchen-garden 
mould,  and  sand,  and  leaf  mould,  well  mixed,  and  sifted  fine.  It 
should,  if  possible,  be  composed  a year  before  it  is  used ; the 
lighter  it  is  the  better  for  anemones. 

The  seed  should  be  sown  in  September.  The  single  flowers 
alone  bear  seed,  which  is  fit  to  gather  when  it  appears  ready  to 
fly  away  with  the  first  gust  of  wind.  As  soon  as  the  seed  is 
lodged,  and  raked  smoothly  into  its  fine,  light  bed,  strew  the  bed 
over  with  straw  or  matting,  and  give  it  a good  watering.  In 
three  weeks  the  seed  will  begin  to  rise,  when  the  straw  may  be 
removed.  The  young  plants  will  flower  in  the  following  April. 

When  the  roots  are  to  be  planted  in  September,  sink  them 
about  three  inches  deep,  and  six  inches  apart,  that  they  may 
come  up  strong  and  flower  well.  Make  a hole  in  the  ground  for 
them  with  your  finger,  and  set  them  upon  the  broadest  side, 
with  the  slit  downwards. 

Those  anemones  planted  in  September  will  flower  in  March 
and  April,  and  the  roots  planted  in  May  flower  in  autumn,  but 
the  flowers  are  never  so  fine. 

When  anemones  have  done  flowering,  it  requires  some  care  in 
taking  up  the  roots,  in  order  to  part  and  put  them  by  till  the 
time  for  replanting  arrives.  The  roots  or  flaps  are  so  small  and 
difficult  to  distinguish,  that  the  earth  should  be  taken  up  and 


48 


ladies’  flower  gardener. 


laid  upon  a sieve  to  be  sifted,  when  the  flaps  will  alone  remain 
behind,  or  the  earth  may  be  deposited  upon  an  open  newspaper 
or  cloth,  and  well  rubbed  with  the  hand  to  feel  for  the  minute 
dark- colored  flaps,  which  may  easily  escape  observation. 

The  beauty  of  this  flower  consists  in  its  thickness  and  roundness, 
especially  when  the  great  leaves  are  a little  above  the  thickness 
of  the  tuft. 

Choose  your  seed  from  the  single  anemone,  with  a broad, 
round  leaf. 

The  remaining  tuberous-rooted  flowers  are  very  hardy. 

BIENNIALS.  X 

Biennial  flowers,  as  the  name  implies,  are  plants  that  exist 
only  two  years.  They  are  propagated  by  seed,  rising  the  first 
year,  and  flowering  the  second.  If  they  continue  another  year, 
they  are  sickly  and  languid.  The  double  biennials  may  be  con- 
tinued by  cuttings  and  slips  of  the  tops,  as  well  as  by  layers  and 
pipings,  though  the  parent  flower  dies — but  they  are  not  so  fine. 
A lady  should  have  a space  of  ground  allotted  to  biennial  seed- 
lings, so  that  a fresh  succession  of  plants  may  be  ready  to  supply 
the  place  of  those  which  die  away.  The  seeds  should  be  sown 
every  spring  in  light,  well-dug  earth  ; the  young  plants  should 
be  kept  very  clean,  and  some  inches  apart  from  each  other ; and 
they  must  be  finally  transplanted  in  autumn  into  the  beds  where 
they  are  intended  to  remain. 

But  there  is  a great  uncertainty  as  to  raising  the  double  flowers ; 
therefore  it  is  better  to  make  sure  of  those  you  approve  by  per- 
petuating them  as  long  as  you  can,  by  any  root  offsets  they  may 
throw  off, — by  pipings,  cuttings,  or  by  layers,  as  before  noticed. 
I subjoin  a list  of  the  principal  and  useful  biennials. 


HARDY  BIENNIALS. 


49 


LIST  OF  HARDY  BIENNIALS. 


Canterbury  Bells 
Blue-flowers 
White 
Purple 
Pyramidal 

Carnation.  All  the  varieties,  some- 
what biennial-perennial. 

Clary , Purple  topped 
Red-topped 
Colutea,  ^Ethiopian 
French  Honeysuckle 
Red 
White 
Globe  Thistle 

Hollyhocks.  Somewhat  biennial-per- 
ennial ; all  the  varieties  ; always 
by  seed 

Lunaria , Moonwort  or  Honesty 
Mallow  (Tree) 

Red 

Scarlet 

Purple 

Red,  white-bordered 
Party-colored 
Variegated 
Painted  Lady 
Double  of  each 

Mule,  or  Mongrel  Sweet-william, 
or  Mule  Pink 

Tree  Mallow  (Lavatera  arborea) 

Tree  Primrose 
Night  Stock 


Poppy , Yellow-horned  (Chelidomum 
glaucum) 

Rocket , Dame’s  violet 
Single  white 
Double  white 
Double  purple 
Single  purple 
Rose  Campion 
Red 
White 

Scabius , double 
Dark  purple-flowered 
Dark-red 
White 

Starry  purple-flowered 
Starry  white 
Jagged-leaved  starry 
Stock  Gilliflower 
Brompton 
Queen 

Twickenham 

Sweet-william 

Common  upright  tall  yellow 
Small-flowered 
Wall-flower 
Yellow-flowered 
Bloody 
White 

Double  of  each 
Petunia 
White 
Lilac 


When  you  make  your  seedling-bed  or  nursery,  cover  it  over 
with  straw,  or  fern,  or  matting,  during  frost ; and  to  prevent  the 
birds  pecking  up  the  seeds,  it  is  requisite  to  protect  the  bed  by 
strewing  light  boughs  of  thorn  bushes  over  it,  or  fixing  a net 
upon  sticks  as  a covering,  till  the  plants  appear.  If  cats,  dogs 
or  poultry  intrude  into  the  flower  garden,  it  is  in  vain  to  hope  for 
enjoyment. 

Sow  your  biennial  seeds  in  March,  April,  or  May.  I recom- 
mend May,  because  the  youfig  plants  in  that  month  germ  and 
3 


50 


LADIES7  FLOWER  GARDENER. 


vegetate  quickly,  surely,  and  without  requiring  defenses  from  the 
frost.  Plant  them  out  in  October,  with  a ball  of  earth  to  each 
root,  where  they  are  to  remain. 

The  Stock  Gilliflowers  in  particular,  having  long,  naked  roots, 
must  be  planted  out  very  young,  otherwise  they  do  not  succeed 
well. 

Honesty  is  a very  early,  rich-flowering  biennial,  which  requires 
no  care ; they  shed  their  seed,  rise,  and  flower  without  any  assist- 
ance, in  profusion.  The  only  trouble  is  to  weed  it  out  of  the 
beds,  that  they  may  not  stand  in  the  way  of  other  flowers. 

Canterbury  Bells  are  handsome  flowers,  and  will  bloom  a long 
time,  if  you  cut  off  the  bells  as  they  decay. 

The  deep  crimson  Sweet-williams  are  most  esteemed ; though 
every  variety  looks  well. 

Sweet-williams  may  be  increased  by  layers  and  cuttings,  which 
is  the  only  sure  way  of  securing  the  sorts  you  like  ; for  you  may 
sow  seed  every  year,  and  not  one  in  a thousand  will  reward  you 
by  coming  up  double. 

Carnations  are  the  pride  of  a garden,  and  deserve  great  care 
and  attention.  The  common  sorts,  which  are  planted  in  borders, 
should  have  a good  rich  earth  about  them,  and  be  treated  like 
the  pink ; but  the  finer  sorts  should  always  be  potted,  to  protect 
and  shelter  the  plant  from  hares,  rabbits,  heavy  rains,  and  severe 
frost  in  the  winter.  Ilefresh  the  top  of  the  pots  with  new  soil  in 
June,  and  keep  the  plants  free  from  decayed  leaves.  Gently  stir 
the  earth  round  each  plant  occasionally ; and  as  plants  in  pots 
require  more  water  than  if  placed  in  the  ground,  let  the  carna- 
tions be  gently  moistened  about  every  other  day  during  dry  wea- 
ther. Let  the  watering  take  place  in  the  evening  ; no  flower  will 
endure  being  watered  during  the  heat  of  a summer’s  day.  Car- 
nations love  sand  and  salt  in  proper  proportions.  The  brine  which 
is  deposited  upon  the  compost  heap  will  answer  every  purpose 


HOLLYHOCKS. 


51 


of  salts,  ^if  it  be  regularly  carried  out),  without  adding  common 
salt:  but  let  this  be  particularly  attended  to.  The  cook  should 
deposit  her  pickle  and  brine  to  good  purpose  upon  the  compost 
heap,  instead  of  splashing  it  down  in  front  of  her  kitchen  door. 

Let  each  plant  be  well  staked,  and  neatly  tied  to  its  supporter ; 
and  do  not  allow  two  buds  to  grow  side  by  side  upon  the  same 
stem,  for  one  will  weaken  the  other.  Pinch  off  the  smaller  bud. 
Carnations  love  warmth  ; therefore  give  them  a sunny  aspect  to 
blow  in.  The  seedling  plants  may  be  treated  like  young  pinks, 
but  this  difference  must  be  observed — pinks  love  shade,  and  car- 
nations love  warmth.  A bed  of  carnations  is  a beautiful  object. 
The  pots  can  always  be  sunk  in  a border  or  bed  in  fine  weather. 
Carnations  may  be  layered,  or  piped,  or  slipped  for  propagation. 

Water  your  carnations  in  pots  once  a week  with  lime  water,  if 
they  appear  drooping,  for  this  proceeds  from  a worm  at  the  root ; 
but  the  brine  will  destroy  all  insects  quickly,  when  poured  upon 
the  compost  heap. 

In  propagating  double  Wall-flowers,  take  slips  of  the  young 
shoots  of  the  head  : this  will  perpetuate  the  double  property  and 
color  of  the  flower,  fiom  which  they  were  slipped.  In  saving 
seed  for  wall-flowers,  choose  the  single  flowers,  which  have  five 
petals  or  flower  leaves.  Double  flowers  have  no  seed. 

Water  the  slips,  and  keep  them  shady  and  moist : they  will 
root  by  September. 

Plant  your  Hollyhocks  in  September  or  October,  where  they 
are  to  remain.  Hollyhocks  are  a noble  flower,  and  they  love  a 
strong  soil.  Let  a succession  of  these  flower  plants  be  attended 
to  in  the  biennial  seed-bed.  Keep  them  some  inches  apart  from 
each  other  in  the  seedling-bed,  for  they  form  large  straggling 
roots.  The  hollyhock  looks  well  in  clumps  of  three,  at  a good 
distance  apart,  in  large  gardens  or  shrubberies,  but  they  are 
somewhat  too  overgrown  for  smaller  parterres. 


62 


ladies’  flower  gardener. 


Be  particular  in  gathering  your  seeds  on  a fine,  dry  day,  and 
put  each  sort  in  a separate  brown  paper  bag  till  you  require 
them.  The  very  finest  seedlings  are,  after  all,  those  which  spring 
near  the  mother  plant  from  self-sown  seed,  therefore,  when  you 
weed  or  dig  your  flower  borders,  be  careful  not  to  disturb  any 
seedlings  which  may  have  sprung  up.  They  always  make  strong, 
fine  blooming  plants. 

Take  care  of  your  double-flowering  plants  in  winter.  The 
double  wall-flower  is  hardy  enough  to  exist  in  the  borders,  but 
the  other  double  biennials  deserve  to  be  sheltered,  for  double 
flowers  are  very  handsome,  and  heavy  rains,  snow,  or  severe  frost, 
injures  them.  Take  cuttings  every  year  from  them. 

The  Night  Stock  is  tolerably  hardy  if  sheltered  during  the 
frost  by  ashes  or  litter.  The  sweetness  after  night-fall  must 
recommend  it  to  all  the  lovers  of  fragrant  flowers. 

PROPAGATING  BIENNIALS. 

Every  young  lady  must  become  acquainted  with  the  manner 
of  operating  upon  plants,  to  preserve  the  finer  sorts,  which  they 
may  wish  to  perpetuate.  Raising  from  seed  is  slow,  but  it  pro- 
duces infinite  variety.  You,  however,  rarely  see  the  same  flower 
produced  twice  from  seed  ; therefore  you  must  propagate  the 
biennial  and  perennial  flowers  by  layers,  slips,  pipings,  and  cut- 
tings, if  you  wish  to  preserve  any  particular  sorts. 

To  effect  layers,  prepare  some  rich,  light  earth,  a parcel  of 
small  hooked  sticks,  or  little  pegs,  and  a sharp  penknife. 

Now  clear  the  ground  about  the  plant  you  are  going  to  layer ; 
stir  the  surface  well  with  your  trowel,  and  put  a sufficient  quan- 
tity of  the  prepared  mould  round  the  plant  as  will  raise  the  sur- 
face to  a convenient  height  for  receiving  the  layer. 

Cut  off  the  top  of  each  shoot  with  your  knife,  about  two  inches, 


PROPAGATING  BIENNIALS. 


63 


and  pull  off  the  lower  leaves ; then  fix  upon  a joint  about  the 
middle  of  the-  shoot,  and,  placing  your  knife  under  it,  slit  the 
shoot  from  that  joint,  rather  more  than  half  way  up,  towards  the 
joint  above  it. 

Now  make  an  opening  in  the  earth,  and  lay  the  stem,  and  slit 
or  gashed  shoot,  into  it,  and  peg  it  down ; taking  care  to  raise 
the  head  of  the  shoot  as  upright  as  you  can,  that  it  may  grow 
shapely  ; then  cover  it  with  the  new  mould,  and  press  the  mould 
gently  round  it.  Do  this  by  each  shoot  till  the  plant  is  layered — 
that  is,  till  every  shoot  is  laid  down.  They  must  be  watered 
often  in  dry  weather,  but  moderately,  not  to  disturb  or  wash 
away  the  soil  round  the  layers.  In  six  weeks’  time,  each  gashed 
or  slit  shoot  will  have  rooted,  and  become  a distinct  plant.  They 
may  be  taken  away  from  the  old  parent  stem  in  September,  and 
dug  up  with  a ball  of  earth  round  each  root,  to  be  transplanted 
into  the  plots  or  borders  where  they  are  to  remain. 

Carnations,  pinks,  sweet-williams,  double  wall-flowers,  &c.,  are 
the  flowers  most  deserving  of  layers. 

Piping,  which  belongs  almost  exclusively  to  carnations  and 
pinks,  is  a most  expeditious  mode  of  raising  young  plants. 

Take  off  the  upper  and  young  part  of  each  shoot,  close  below 
a joint,  with  a sharp  knife,  and  cut  each  off  at  the  third  joint,  or 
little  knob  ; then  cut  the  top  leaves  down  pretty  short,  and  take 
off  the  lower  and  discolored  ones.  When  you  have  piped  in  this 
way  as  many  as  you  require,  let  them  stand  a week  in  a tumbler 
of  water,  which  greatly  facilitates  their  doing  well.  Indeed,  I 
never  failed  in  any  pipings,  slips,  or  cuttings,  which  I allowed  to 
soak  and  swell  in  water  previous  to  planting.  When  you  plant 
the  pipings,  let  the  ground  be  nicely  dug,  and  raked  very  fine  ; 
dibble  no  hole,  but  gently  thrust  each  piping  half  way  down  into 
the  soft  earth,  slightly  pressing  the  earth  round  each,  to  fix  it  in 
the  bed.  Water  them  often  if  the  weather  is  dry,  but  moder- 


54 


ladies’  flower  gardener. 


ately,  just  to  keep  them  moist ; and  shade  them  from  the  hot  sun 
in  the  day.  If  pipings  are  covered  with  a hand-glass,  they  root 
earlier,  by  three  weeks,  than  those  which  are  exposed. 

Laying,  piping,  and  slipping,  are  done  in  June  and  July.  The 
plants  will  be  well  rooted,  and  fit  to  plant  out,  in  October. 

The  operation  of  slipping  is  easy.  Tear  the  top  shoots  of  the 
plant  to  be  so  propagated,  gently  from  their  sockets ; hold  the 
shoot  between  your  finger  and  thumb,  as  near  the  socket  as  you 
can,  and  it  will  tear  as  easily  and  neatly  as  you  carve  the  wing 
of  poultry  or  game.  Place  the  slips  in  water  for  a few  days 
previous  to  planting  them,  like  pipings.  They  will  root  in  six 
weeks  or  two  months,  if  kept  shady  and  moist. 

Cuttings  must  be  made  of  shoots  of  the  last  year’s  growth  of 
roses,  honeysuckles,  &c.,  and  planted  in  February.  Choose  the 
strong  shoots,  and  do  not  cut  them  less  than  six  inches  long. 
Cut  them  with  your  knife  in  a slanting  direction.  Plant  them  in 
a shady  place,  each  cutting  half  way  in  the  ground,  which  should 
be  cleaned,  and  well  dug  and  raked,  to  receive  them.  Cuttings 
made  in  February  will  root  well  by  October. 

Cuttings  of  flower  stalks,  such  as  scarlet  lychnis,  should  be 
done  in  May,  June,  and  July.  Take  cuttings  from  the  youngest 
flower  stems,  and  plant  them  carefully  in  nice  mould,  like  pip- 
ings. These  flower  cuttings  should  be  in  lengths  of  four  joints 
each.  Covering  them  with  a hand-glass  raises  them  very  quickly. 
They  root  in  two  months. 

Where  hand-glasses  are  not  to  form  any  part  of  a lady’s 
arrangements,  oil- papered  frames  are  equally  useful.  I have 
seen  very  economical  and  useful  frames  made  of  bamboo,  in  the 
form  of  hand-glasses,  covered  neatly  with  glazed  white  cotton  or 
linen,  or  born  paper,  made  by  a lady  with  great  celerity  and  in- 
genuity ; and  her  cuttings  and  pipings  succeeded  under  them 
admirably.  Whatever  shelters  cuttings  and  pipings  from  the 


PROTECTION  FOR  CUTTINGS. 


56 


rays  of  the  sun  effects  a material  purpose.  Linen  is  the  best 
shelter  in  the  world  from  heat,  but  oiled  or  horn  paper  resists 
rain  better. 

Dr.  Priestley  is  of  opinion  that  salt  water  is  very  efficacious  for 
cuttings,  if  they  are  placed  in  it  for  a few  days  previous  to  plant- 
ing. He  remarks  that  it  is  a custom  with  the  importers  of  exotic 
plants  to  dip  cuttings  in  salt  and  water,  otherwise  they  would 
perish  on  the  passage. 


56 


ladies’  flower  gardener. 


CHAPTER  Y. 

ANNUALS. 

/2®NNUALS,  as  I have  observed  before,  are  flowers  that 
rise,  bloom,  and  die  in  the  same  year ; and  must  there- 
fore  be  raised  from  seed  every  year. 

The  first  class  of  annuals,  being  very  delicate,  and  requiring 
great  care,  with  the  constant  assistance  of  glass  frames,  I shall 
not  even  name,  since  they  do  not  enter  into  the  nature  of  my 
work. 

I proceed  to  the  second  class,  which  are  hardier  than  the 
above,  though  they  should  be  raised  in  a warm  border,  and 
be  covered  with  a hand-glass,  if  you  wish  them  to  flower  in  good 
time. 

The  ten  weeks’  Stocks  will  grow,  if  sown  in  a warm  border, 
towards  the  end  of  March,  and  should  be  afterwards  transplant- 
ed ; but  if  brought  up  in  a hot-bed,  they  will  flower  a month  or 
six  weeks  earlier. 

The  China-aster,  Chrysanthemum,  white  and  purple  Sultan, 
African  and  French  Marigolds,  Persicarias,  &c.,  will  grow  well  in 
a warm  border  of  natural  earth,  if  sown  in  April ; but  they  also 
flower  a month  earlier  if  they  are  assisted  by  a hot-bed  or  glass. 
These  annuals  must  be  all  planted  out  when  tolerably  strong,  into 
the  spots  where  they  are  destined  to  remain  in  the  borders,  tak- 
ing care  to  allow  to  each  plant  plenty  of  space,  that  they  may 
not  crowd  each  other.  The  China-aster  branches  into  many 
stems  and  flowers,  therefore  they  may  be  planted  singly,  or  not 


ANNUALS. 


57 


less  than  six  inches  apart.  The  July  flowers,  or  more  commonly 
called  gilliflowers,  become  expansive  as  they  increase.  They 
should  not  be  crowded  together;  three  in  a group  are  quite 
sufficient,  and  they  should  be  six  inches  apart.  The  same  may 
be  said  of  the  stock  varieties. 

I have  ever  found  the  hardy  annuals  grow  finest  by  allowing 
them  to  become  self-sown.  They  flower  some  weeks  earlier,  and 
invariably  produce  larger  and  brighter  flowers. 

When  gathering  my  flower  seeds  in  August  and  September,  I 
allow  one  half  to  remain  sprinkled  over  the  borders ; and  the 
young  plants  never  fail  appearing  healthy  and  strong  above 
ground  in  March  and  April,  the  months  appropriated  to  sowing 
the  seed.  Thus,  my  Lavateras,  Larkspurs,  &c.,  are  in  beautifo: 
blow,  while  the  second  crop,  or  seeds  sown  in  spring,  are  but 
showing  their  green  heads  above  the  surface.  I weed  away  the 
superfluous  self-sown  plants  to  my  taste  ; but  the  birds  take  care 
that  no  one  shall  be  encumbered  with  a superfluity.  I have  by 
this  means  a first  and  second  crop  of  the  same  annuals,  but  the 
crop  of  self-sown  are  far  superior.  They  are  up  before  the  heats 
come  on,  to  dry  the  earth,  and  dwindle  the  flower. 

Dig  the  ground  well  with  your  trowel,  and  rake  it  very  fine, 
before  you  put  in  the  seeds  in  spring.  Annuals  love  a light, 
friable  soil.  Ail  the  hardy  kinds  may  be  sown  in  March,  each 
sort  in  little  separate  patches,  as  follows  : — 

Draw  a little  earth  off  the  top  to  one  side,  then  sprinkle  in  the 
seed,  not  too  plentifully,  and  cover  it  again  with  the  drawn-off 
earth.  Half  an  inch  is  sufficient  depth  for  small  seed.  The 
larger  kind,  such  as  sweet-peas,  lupins,  &c.,  must  be  sown  an 
inch  in  depth.  When  the  plants  have  been  up  some  time,  thin 
them  well.  The  more  space  you  have,  the  finer  the  plants  will 
rise. 

The  hardy  annuals  will  not  bear  transplanting  : they  must  bo 
3* 


68 


ladies’  floweb  gardener. 


left  to  flourish  where  they  are  sown.  The  large  kinds,  such  as 
the  lavatera  or  mallow,  should  only  be  sown  in  groups  of  three 
plants  together.  The  lupin  tribe  should  not  exceed  five  plants  in 
a group.  The  Convolvulus,  also,  requires  four  or  five  plants  only 
in  a group.  Water  the  patches  in  dry  weather  moderately,  and 
be  careful  never  to  use  pump  water.  If  you  have  no  soft  water, 
a tub  should  be  placed  in  the  garden  to  receive  rain  water ; and 
if,  as  in  towns,  pump  water  must  be  chiefly  used,  let  it  remain  a 
day  or  two  in  the  tub,  to  soften  in  the  air  and  sunshine. 

The  first  week  in  April  is  the  safest  period  for  sowing  annuals, 
as  the  cutting  winds  have  ceased  by  that  time,  and  frost  is  not  so 
much  to  be  apprehended.  The  soft  rains,  also,  fall  in  warm 
showers,  to  give  life  and  germ  to  seeds  and  plants,  and  they 
appear  in  a shorter  space  of  time. 

Those  ladies  who  live  in  the  vicinity  of  nursery  gardens  have  a 
great  advantage  over  the  more  remote  flower-fanciers.  They  can 
be  supplied,  at  a trifling  expense,  with  all  the  tender  annuals 
from  hot-beds,  either  in  pots,  or  drawn  ready  for  immediate 
transplanting. 

If  you  do  not  raise  your  own  seed,  be  careful  how  you  pur- 
chase your  stock,  and  of  whom  you  receive  it.  Many  seedsmen 
sell  the  refuse  of  many  years’  stock  to  their  youthful  customers, 
and  produce  great  disappointment.  There  is  one  way  of  ascer- 
taining the  goodness  of  the  seed,  which  will  not  deceive.  Pre- 
vious to  sowing,  plunge  your  lupin,  sunflower,  &c.,  seeds  into  a 
tumbler  of  water : the  good  seed  will  sink,  while  the  light  and 
useless  part  remains  floating  on  the  surface. 

If  you  grow  your  own  seed^  exchange  it  every  two  years  with 
your  neighbors.  Seeds  love  change  of  soil : they  degenerate, 
if  repeatedly  grown  and  sown  upon  the  same  spot,  particularly 
sweet-peas. 

Sweet-peas  should  he  put  into  the  ground  early  in  March,  for 


ANNUALS. 


59 


they  will  bear  the  wind  and  weather.  Make  a circle  round  a 
pole,  or  some  object  to  which  they  may  cling  as  they  rise ; and 
put  the  peas  an  inch  deep,  having  soaked  them  previously  in 
water  well  saturated  with  arsenic,  to  guard  them  from  the  depre- 
dations of  birds  and  mice.  Add  an  outer  circle  of  peas  every 
month,  so  that  a continual  bloom  may  appear.  The  circle  first 
sown  will  ripen  and  pod  for  seed  in  the  center,  while  the  outer 
vines  will  continue  flowering  till  late  in  the  autumn.  When  you 
have  gathered  a sufficient  number  of  ripe  pods,  cut  away  all  the 
pods  which  may  afterwards  form  with  your  knife.  This  strength- 
ens the  vines,  and  throws  all  their  vigor  into  repeated  blooms. 

Be  very  careful  to  throw  away  the  arsenic  water  upon  your 
heap  of  compost,  and  do  not  put  that  powerful  poison  into  any 
thing  which  may  be  used  afterwards  in  the  house.  Soak  the 
peas  in  a flower-pot  saucer  which  is  never  required  for  any  other 
purpose,  and  keep  it  on  a shelf  in  the  tool-house,  covered  up. 
Three  or  four  hours’  soaking  will  be  sufficient.  If  the  wind  and 
frosts  be  powerful  and  continued,  shelter  the  peas  through  March, 
by  covering  them  with  straw  or  matting  every  evening. 

I have  got  sweet-peas  into  very  early  blow  by  bringing  them 
up  in  pots  in-doors,  and  transplanting  them  carefully  in  April, 
without  disturbing  the  roots.  In  doing  this,  push  your  finger 
gently  through  the  orifice  at  the  bottom  of  the  flower-pot,  and 
raise  its  contents  “ bodily.”  Then  place  the  ball  of  earth  and 
plants  into  a hole  troweled  out  to  receive  it ; cover  it  round  gently, 
and,  if  the  weather  is  dry,  water  it  moderately. 

Ten-weeks’  Stock  is  a very  pretty  annual,  and  continues  a long 
time  in  bloom.  Mignionette  is  the  sweetest  of  all  perfumes,  and 
should  be  sown  in  September  for  early  blowing,  and  again  in 
March  for  a later  crop.  It  is  always  more  perfumy  and  healthy, 
if  dug  into  the  ground  in  autumn  to  sow  itself.  Venus’  Looking- 
glass  is  a very  pretty,  delicate  flower.  Indeed,  every  annual  is 


60 


ladies’  flower  gardener. 


lovely ; and  the  different  varieties  give  a gay  and  rich  appearance 
to  the  flower  garden  during  the  three  summer  months. 

The  Clarkias  are  very  pretty  annuals,  with  a hundred  other 
varieties  lately  introduced,  and  which  are  all  specified  in  Mrs. 
Loudon’s  new  work  upon  annuals.  My  plan  is,  to  give  a general 
idea  of  their  treatment  only,  under  the  classification  of  hardy 
annuals,  or  those  annuals  which  may  be  nurtured  without  a hot- 
bed. 

Keep  your  annuals  from  looking  wild  and  disorderly  in  a 
garden  by  allotting  the  smaller  kinds  their  separate  patches  of 
ground ; and  trim  the  larger  annuals  from  branching  among  other 
flowers.  For  instance,  cut  away  the  lower  branches  of  the  China- 
aster,  the  African  marigold,  &c.,  and  train  the  plant  erect  and 
neatly  to  a slight  rod  or  stick ; cut  away  the  flowers  as  they 
droop,  reserving  one  or  two  of  the  finest  blooms  only  for  seed  : 
and  let  each  plant  look  clean  and  neat  in  its  own  order.  By 
cutting  away  flowers  as  they  droop,  the  plant  retains  vigor 
enough  to  continue  throwing  out  fresh  flowers  for  a long  peiiod. 


SECOND,  OR  LESS  TENDER  CLASS  OF  ANNUALS. 


African  Marigold , the  orange 
Yellow 
Straw-colored 
Double  of  each 
Double-quilled 
French  Marigold , the  striped 
The  yellow 
Sweet-scented 
China-aster , the  double 
Double  purple 
Double  white 
Double-striped 

Marvel  of  Peru , the  red  striped 
Yellow^striped 
Long-tubed 

Chrysanthemum , the  double  white 
Double  yellow 
Double-quilled 
Sweet  Sultan , the  yellow 


White 

Red 

Indian  Pink , double 
Single 

Large  imperial 
Alkekengi 

Palma  Christi , the  common 
Tall  red-stalked 
Smaller  green-leaved 
Smallest 

Tobacco , long-leaved  Virginia 
Broad-leaved 
Branching  perennial 
Love  Apple , with  red  fruit 
With  yellow  fruit 
Gourds , the  round  smooth  orange 
Rock,  or  warted 
Pear-shaped  yellow 
Pear-shaped  striped 


ANNUALS. 


61 


Stone  colored 

Bottle  Gourd , some  very  large,  from 
two  or  three  to  five  or  six  feet 
long,  and  of  various  shapes 
Momordica  Balsamina 
Per  sic  aria 

Indian  Corn , the  tall  Dwarf 
Nolana  prostrata,  blue 
Convolvulus,  scarlet-flowered 
Yellow  Balsam , or  Touch-me-not 
Capsicum , long  red  podded 
Long  yellow- podded 
Red,  short,  thick,  roundish  podded 
With  heart-shaped  pods 
With  cherry-shaped  fruit,  red 
Cherry-shaped  fruit,  yellow 
Basil,  the  common,  or  sweet-scented 
Bush  basil 


Zinnia,  red 
Yellow 
Amaranthus 
Tree  Amaranthus 
Prince’s  feather  amaranthus 
Love-lies-bleeding  amaranthus 
Cannacorus , yellow 
Red 

Chinese  Hollyhock,  the  variegated 
Ten-week  Stock  Gilliflower 
The  double  red 
Double  w’hite 
Double  purple 

White  Ten-week  Stock , with  a wall- 
flower leaf 

With  double  and  single  flowers 
The  double  of  this  sort  makes  a 
pretty  appearance 


The  following  are  hardy  annuals,  requiring  no  assistance  of 
artificial  heat,  but  should  all  be  sown  in  the  place  where  it  is 
designed  they  shall  flower : — - 


Adonis  Flower , or  Flos  Adonis,  the 
red-flowering 
The  yellow 

Candytuft,  the  large 
Purple 
White 

Larkspur,  the  double  rose 
Double-branched 
Large  double  blue 
Double  white 
• Lupins,  the  rose 
Large  blue 
Small  blue 
Yellow 
White 
Scarlet 
Marbled 

Sunflower,  the  tall  double 
Double  dwarf 

Lavatera,  red 
White 

Poppy,  the  double  tall  striped  car- 
nation 

Dwarf- striped 
Double  corn  poppy 
Horned  poppy 


Convolvulus,  major 
Minor 
Striped 
White 
Scarlet 

Ketmia  bladder 
Starry  Scabius 
Hawkweed,  the  yellow 
Purple,  or  red 
Spanish 

Carthamus  tinctorius,  or  saffron- 
flower 

Nasturtium,  the  large 
Small 

Cerinthe  major,  or  great  Honey- wort 
Tangier  Pea 

Sweet  Pea,  the  painted  lady 
The  purple 
White 
Scarlet 
Winged  Pea 
Crowned  Pea 

Nigella , or  devil  in  a bush,  the  long 
blue,  or  Spanish 
The  white 

Oriental  mallow,  curled 


62 


ladies’  flower  gardener. 


Venetian  mallow 
Lobel’s  Catchfly , white  and  red 
Arbiscus 
Pimpernel 
Dwarf  Lychnis 
Venus’s  Navel-wort 
Venus’s  Looking-glass 
Virginian  Stock 
Strawberry  Spinach 
Noli  me  tangerc:  or  Touch-me-not 
Heart’s  Ease 
Snail  Plant 
Large  ditto 
Caterpillar  Plant 
Hedgehog  Plant 

Antirrhinum , snap-dragon,  the  annual 
Nolana , blue 

Cyanus,  or  corn-bottle,  the  red 
White 
Blue 

Roman  Nettle 

Belvidere , or  summer  cypress 
Garden , or  common , Marigold)  the 
common  single 
Double  orange 


Double  lemon-colored 
Double  lemon-colored  ranunculus 
marigold 

Annual  Cape  Marigold , with  a violet 
and  white  flower 

Mignionette , or  reseda,  the  sweet- 
scented 
The  upright 

Xeranthemum , or  eternal  flower,  red 
and  white 
Purple  Clary 
Purple  Jacob wa 
Dracocephalum , the  purple 
Blue 

Capnoides , or  bastard  fumitory 
Ten-week  Stock  Gilliflowers , in  variety 
Persicaria 
Tobacco  Plant 
Long-leaved, 

Round-leaved 
Indian  Corn 
Amethystea 
Globe  Thistle 
Clarkias 


BOSES  AND  JASMINES. 


63 


CHAPTER  VI. 

ROSES  AND  JASMINES. 

fHESE  most  delicious,  most  elegant  flowers — in  themselves 
a garden — are  worthy  of  a chapter  devoted  exclusively 
to  their  culture.  What  cottage  exists  without  its  roses 
twined  around  the  doorway,  or  blooming  up  its  pathway  ? 
What  is  sentiment  without  its  roses  ? What  other  flower  illus- 
trates the  beauty  and  excellence  of  a loved  one  ? — 

44  Oh  ! my  love  is  like  the  red,  red  rose, 

That  sweetly  blows  in  June.” 

Every  gentle  feeling,  every  exquisite  thought,  every  delicate 
allusion,  is  embodied  in  the  rose.  It  is  absurd  to  say  the  rose  by 
any  other  name  44  would  smell  as  sweet.”  It  is  not  so.  Poetry, 
painting,  and  music,  have  deified  the  rose.  Call  it  44  nettle,”  and 
we  should  cast  it  from  our  hands  in  disgust. 

There  are  innumerable  varieties  of  roses,  from  the  cottage  rose 
to  the  fairy  rose,  whose  buds  are  scarcely  so  large  as  the  bells  of 
the  lily  of  the  valley.  Mrs.  Gore  mentions  some  hundreds  of 
sorts,  but  such  a catalogue  is  too  mighty  to  insert  in  my  little 
work.  I will  name  only  the  well-known  hardy  kinds,  and  refer 
ray  reader  to  Mrs.  Gore  herself  for  the  complete  collection.  Seed 
yields  such  inexhaustible  varieties,  that  a new  list  will  be  required 
every  ten  years. 

The  Damask  rose  is  very  useful  from  its  properties,  as  well  as 
its  beauty  and  hardihood.  Rose-water  is  distilled  from  this 
bright,  thickly-blowing  flower 


64 


ladies’  flower  gardener. 


The  Cabbage  roses  is  the  most  beautiful,  as  well  as  the  most 
fragrant  of  roses.  All  others  are  varieties  of  roses,  but  this  grand 
flower  is  the  “ rose  itself.” 

It  throws  out  suckers  plentifully  for  propagating  its  kind  ,*  and 
every  two  or  three  years,  the  root  of  each  bush  will  part  into 
separate  plants.  Cut  the  roots  slanting  with  a sharp  knife  as 
you  divide  them.  A very  small  bit  of  root  is  sufficient  for  a rose- 
bush, as  they  are  hardy  in  their  nature.  Do  not  move  roses 
oftener  than  you  can  help : they  delight  in  being  stationary  for 
years. 

In  pruning  roses  of  every  description,  which  should  be  effected 
in  January,  shorten  all  the  shoots  to  nine  inches  only,  and  cut 
away  all  the  old  wood,  which  becomes  useless  after  two  or  three 
years’  growth.  This  treatment  insures  fine  flowers. 

Roses  love  a good  soil,  as,  indeed,  what  flower  does  not  ? 
Fresh  mould  applied  to  them  every  two  or  three  years,  or 
manure  dug  round  them  annually,  preserves  them  in  constant 
vigor  and  beauty. 

Shoots  of  rose-bushes  laid  down  and  pegged  like  layers,  only 
without  gashing,  when  the  flowers  are  in  bloom,  will  root  and 
become  plants  in  the  autumn.  Pinch  off  their  buds,  that  they 
may  throw  their  strength  into  their  roots. 

Roses  are  often  observed  to  change  their  color,  which  effect 
proceeds  chiefly  from  bad  soil.  When  this  occurs,  manure  the 
root  of  the  bush  or  plant.  A clay  soil,  well  dressed  with  ashes, 
is  the  best  of  all  soils  for  the  hardy  roses. 

Moss  roses  love  a cool  soil  and  a cool  aspect.  They  soon  fade 
in  a hot  sun. 

A pyramid  of  climbing  roses  is  a beautiful  object  in  a garden. 
Iron  or  wooden  stakes,  twelve  feet  in  height,  gradually  approach- 
ing each  other,  till  they  meet  at  the  top,  with  climbing  roses 
trained  up  their  sides,  is  a pleasing  and  easily  constructed  orna- 


ROSES  AND  JASMINES. 


65 


ment.  Fancy  and  taste  may  range  at  will  in  inventing  forms  to 
ornament  the  parterre  with  roses.  Beds  of  roses,  raised  pyramid- 
ally, have  a splendid  effect.  When  the  flowers  die  away  in  the 
autumn,  the  mass  may  be  clipped  again  into  form,  with  the 
garden  shears,  as  you  would  clip  a laurel  hedge. 

Standard  roses , which  are  so  much  in  fashion  at  this  time,  and 
which  always  remind  one  of  a housemaid's  long  broom  for  sweep- 
ing cobwebs,  are  beyond  a lady's  own  management,  as  budding 
is  a troublesome  business,  and  very  frequently  fails.  I will  not, 
therefore,  touch  upon  that  subject. 

The  double  yellow  rose  is  very  elegant.  It  requires  a western 
aspect,  and  even  prefers  north  and  east,  but  a warm  aspect  in- 
jures its  beauty.  It  loves  a good  substantial  soil,  and  will  not 
bear  much  cutting  or  removing.  Let  it  alone  in  its  glory,  only 
pruning  away  the  old  scraggy  wood  occasionally,  to  strengthen 
the  plant. 

The  monthly  rose  is  also  a lover  of  the  north  and  east.  It 
blooms  through  the  autumn  and  winter,  has  an  evergreen  leaf, 
and  loves  a strong  soil.  It  must  be  propagated  by  cuttings,  and 
parting  the  roots,  as  it  never  throws  up  suckers.  Prune  away 
the  old  wood,  and  make  cuttings  in  June,  July,  and  August,  of 
the  branches  you  clear  away.  Plant  the  cuttings  in  loose,  moist 
earth,  and  do  not  let  them  bud  till  the  following  year.  Let  the 
cuttings  be  sunk  two  joints  in  the  earth,  leaving  only  one  exposed. 
The  monthly  rose  climbs,  or  creeps. 

The  Austrian  briar , or  rose , will  not  flower  if  exposed  to  the 
south.  It  bears  a rich  mass  of  flowers,  yellow  outside,  and  deep 
red  within.  Give  it  an  eastern  or  western  aspect.. 

The  perpetual , or  “ four-season " rose,  requires  a rich  soil. 
The  flower  buds  appearing  in  June  or  July  should  be  pinched 
off,  and  in  winter  the  plant  may  be  pruned  as  closely  as  its 


66 


ladies’  flower  gardener. 


hardier  companions.  Place  the  four- season  rose  in  a sheltered 
situation  from  winds. 

Among  the  hardy  climbing  roses,  the  Ayrshire  rose  is  the  most 
useful.  Its  foliage  is  rich,  and  it  covers  fences,  walls,  &c.,  with 
astonishing  rapidity.  It  flowers  in  July.  Place  it  in  a warm 
situation,  and  it  will  extend  thirty  feet  in  one  season. 

Lady  Banks's  yelloio  rose  is  a pretty  climber,  and  flowers  early 
in  all  situations.  So  does  the  Rosa  sempervirens. 

Climbing  roses  will  grow  luxuriantly  under  the  shade  of  trees, 
and  form  a mass  of  fragrant  underwood  in  shrubberies.  They 
grow  with  surprising  vigor  if  allowed  to  remain  prostrate.  Plant 
these  thinly,  and  lay  in  the  most  vigorous  shoots,  by  pegging 
them  down  into  the  ground.  This  process  increases  the  plants 
rapidly,  and  gives  the  gayest  possible  effect. 

The  Rosa  hybrida  multiflora  is  a hardy  and  rapidly  growing 
rose.  It  flowers  also  from  June  to  September.  So  does  the  red 
and  crimson  Boursault,  and  the  Rosa  Russeliana. 

Roses  are  subject  to  the  green  fly,  which  disfigures  their  beauty, 
particularly  the  white  roses.  An  excellent  remedy  for  this" annoy- 
ance is  effected  by  moistening  the  plant,  and  then  dusting  it  over 
with  equal  portions  of  sulphur  and  tobacco  dust. 

The  following  list  of  roses  will  not  prove  beyond  a lady’s  man- 
agement, being  hardy,  and  requiring  only  pruning  every  January, 
and  giving  them  a good  soil.  Prune  the  white  rose-trees  very 
sparingly,  as  they  do  not  love  the  knife : — 


Roses , early  cinnamon 
Double  yellow 
Single  yellow 
Red  monthly 
White  monthly 
Double  white 
Moss  Provence 
Common  Provence 
Double  velvet 


Single  Ditto 

Dutch  hundred-leaved 

Blush  ditto 

Blush  Belgic 

Red  ditto 

Marbled 

Large  royal 

York  and  Lancaster 

Red  damask 


ROSES  AND  JASMINES. 


67 


Blush  ditto 

Austrian,  with  flowers  having  one 
side  red  and  the  other  yellow 
White  damask 
Austrian  yellow 
Double  musk 
Royal  virgin 

Rosa  mundi,  i.  e .,  rose  of  the  world, 
or  striped  red  rose 
Frankfort 
Cluster  blush 
Maiden  blush 


Virgin,  or  thornless 
Common  red 
Burnet  leaved 
Scotch,  the  dwarf 
Striped  Scotch 
Apple-bearing 
Single  American 
Rose  of  Meux 
Pennsylvanian 
Red  cluster 
Burgundy  rose 
Perpetual,  or  four-season 


HARDY  CLIMBING  ROSES. 


The  Ayrshire  rose 
Double  ditto 
Rose  hybrida  multiflora 
Rose  Clair 
Rosa  Russeliana 
Reversa  elegans 


Rosa  sempervirens,  three  sorts 

Rose  ruga 

Red  Boursault 

Crimson  ditto 

Lady  Banks’  yellow  rose 


JASMINES. 

Jasmines  grow  in  very  irregular  forms.  Perhaps  their  luxuri- 
ant wild  appearance  constitutes  their  chief  grace.  The  jasmine 
is  a beautiful  screen  in  summer,  wreathing  its  festoons  through 
trellis-work  ; and  it  appears  to  me  that  Nature  presents  not,  in 
our  colder  climes,  a more  fragrant  and  beautiful  bouquet  than  a 
mixture  of  roses  and  jasmines. 

The  common  jasmine  is  hardy,  and  loves  a good  soil,  by  which 
term  I mean  kitchen  garden  soil.  Trench  round  the  stem  occa- 
sionally to  lighten  the  earth,  and  it  will  grow  very  freely.  Put 
litter  round  the  jasmine  in  severe  frost ; and  if  a very  rigorous 
season  destroy  the  branches,  the  root  will  be  saved,  and  its  shoots 
in  the  spring  will  soon  replace  the  loss.  If  they  shoot  out  with 
displeasing  irregularity  and  confusion,  take  off  the  least  healthy 
looking  branches,  and  cut  away  those  which  grow  rumpled,  for 
they  only  consume  the  juices  of  the  plant  to  no  purpose.  The 
common  jasmine  is  propagated  by  layers  and  slips. 


68 


ladies’  flower  gardener. 


The  Arabian  jasmine  is  very  fragrant,  but  it  does  not  endure 
cold,  or  much  heat,  therefore  an  eastern  aspect  suits  it  best.  If 
the  Arabian  jasmine  is  grown  in  a large  pot  or  box,  it  could 
be  placed  under  cover  during  frost  in  the  winter  months ; but  do 
not  place  it  in  a green-house,  which  would  be  in  the  other  ex- 
treme again. 

The  yellow  jasmine  may  be  treated  like  the  common  jasmine. 
It  is  not  very  fragrant,  but  it  forms  an  elegant  variety. 

I have  seen  very  fanciful  and  beautiful  devices  invented  to  dis- 
play the  beauty  of  the  jasmine.  Their  shoots  grow  so  rapidly 
and  luxuriantly,  that  if  the  plant  is  allowed  to  luxuriate,  it  will 
soon  cover  any  frame- work  with  its  drooping  beauty.  The  jas- 
mine loves  to  hang  downwards  ; and  I have  admired  inventive 
little  arbors,  where  the  plant  has  been  trained  up  behind  them, 
and  the  branches  allowed  to  fall  over  their  front  in  the  richest 
profusion,  curtained  back  like  the  entrance  of  a tent.  The  effect, 
during  their  time  of  flowering,  was  remarkably  elegant. 

When  you  prune  the  jasmine,  cut  the  branches  to  an  eye  or 
bud,  just  by  the  place  from  which  they  sprout,  and  that  in  such 
a manner,  that  the  head  when  trimmed,  should  resemble  the  head 
of  a willow.  This  method  makes  them  throw  out  abundance  of 
branches  and  fine  flowers. 

Give  fresh  soil  to  the  jasmine  every  two'  years,  or  they  will 
gradually  become  weakened  in  their  blooms.  The  secret  of  hav- 
ing fine  flowers  is  in  keeping  up  the  soil  to  a regular  degree  of 
strength,  as  the  human  frame  languishes  under  change  of  diet, 
and  becomes  weakened  for  want  of  food.  Thus  it  is  with  animate 
and  inanimate  nature. 


EVERGREEN  SHRUBS. 


69 


CHAPTER  VII. 

ORNAMENTAL  SHRUBS  AND  EVERGREENS. 

§ SHALL  speak  now  of  the  ornamental  shrubs  which  de- 
corate a dower  garden,  and  which  a lady  may  superintend 
herself,  - if  her  own  physical  powers  are  not  equal  to  the 
fatigue  of  planting.  A laborer,  or  a stout  active  girl,  may  act 
under  her  orders,  and  do  all  that  is  necessary  to  be  done,  in 
removing  or  planting  flowering  shrubs  and  evergreens. 

In  planting  flowering  shrubs,  be  very  particular  to  plant  them 
at  such  distances  that  each  plant  may  have  plenty  of  room  to 
grow,  and  strike  out  their  roots  and  branches  freely.  If  shrubs 
are  crowded  together,  they  become  stunted  in  growth,  and  lanky 
in  form. 

If  you  are  forming  a clump,  or  even  a plantation,  let  each 
shrub  be  planted  six  feet  apart  from  its  neighbor : but  if  you 
wish  to  plant  roses,  syringas,  honeysuckles,  lilacs,  &c.,  in  your 
flower  borders,  they  should  be  from  twelve  to  fifteen  feet  distant 
from  each  other,  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  the  flowers  growing 
below  them. 

Do  not  plant  tall  shrubs  promiscuously  among  low-growing 
ones.  Let  the  taller  shrubs  form  the  back-grounds,  that  each 
shrub  may  be  distinctly  seen.  The  shrubs  should  be  trained  up 
with  single  stems,  and  they  should  be  pruned  every  year, 
taking  up  the  suckers,  and  removing  disorderly  branches. 

By  allowing  each  shrub  plenty  of  room,  it  will  form  a hand- 
some head,  and  throw  out  vigorous  shoots.  You  will  also  have 


70  ladies’  flower  gardener. 

space  to  dig  between  the  shrubs,  and  the  sun  and  air  can  benefit 
them. 

Some  of  the  more  beautiful  evergreens  look  extremely  well 
dotted  about  the  grounds  singly  or  in  clumps,  but  be  very  parti- 
cular in  planting  your  shrubs. 

For  instance,  when  you  wish  to  transplant  or  plant  a shrub, 
dig  a circular  hole  sufficiently  large  to  receive  the  roots  of  the 
plant,  which  must  be  laid  neatly  down,  while  some  person  holds 
the  shrub  in  its  proper  position,  straight  and  upright.  Cut  away 
any  dead  or  damaged  roots  ; then  break  the  earth  well  with  your 
spade,  and  throw  it  into  the  hole,  shaking  the  plant  gently,  just 
to  let  the  earth  fall  close  in  among  the  roots.  When  it  is  well 
filled  up,  tread  the  earth  gently  round  the  shrub  to  fix  it,  but  do 
not  stamp  it,  as  I have  seen  people  do. 

But  if  you  can  take  up  shrubs  with  a bah  of  earth  round  their 
roots,  they  do  not  feel  the  operation,  and  their  leaves  do  not 
droop.  Water  each  shrub  after  planting : give  each  of  them  a 
good  soaking,  and  let  each  plant  have  a stake  to  support  it  dur- 
ing the  winter. 

October  is  the  autumn  month  for  transplanting  shrubs,  and 
February  and  March  are  the  spring  months.  I always  prefer  the 
autumn  transplanting,  as  the  rains  and  showers  are  so  fructifying. 
March  is  the  last  month  for  transplanting  evergreens. 

Laurustinus,  Phillyreas,  and  Laurel,  are  excellent  shrubs  to 
plant  near  buildings,  or  to  hide  a wall.  They  are  evergreen 
summer  and  winter,  very  hardy,  and  quick  growing. 

The  Pyracantha  is  an  elegant  shrub,  with  its  clusters  of  red 
berries  ; and  it  looks  gay  during  the  autumn  and  winter. 

The  Arbutus,  or  strawberry  tree,  is  loaded  with  its  strawber- 
ries in  August,  September,  and  October.  This  is  a beautiful 
shrub,  placed  singly  on  a lawn,  kept  to  one  single  clean  stem, 
and  a fine  branching  head. 


EVERGREEN  SHRUBS. 


71 


Portugal  laurels  are  beautiful : their  deep  green  leaves,  and 
scented  feathery  flowers,  make  them  an  important  shrub  in  all 
gardens. 

It  has  been  ascertained  by  the  late  severe  winter,  that  ever- 
greens are  extremely  hardy,  and  will  bear  any  severity  of  frost. 
All  those  evergreens  considered  most  tender,  such  as  Portugal 
laurels,  rhododendrons,  &c.,  were  observed  to  brave  the  frost  un- 
hurt, which  were  placed  in  high  unsheltered  places,  or  facing  the 
east  and  north.  It  was  observed,  also,  that  those  evergreens 
were  destroyed  whose  aspect  was  south  and  west,  and  which  lay 
in  warm  and  sheltered  situations.  The  cause  was  this.  The 
shrubs  did  not  suffer  which  were  not  subject  to  alternations  of 
heat  and  cold  ; while  those  which  lay  in  warm  situations,  being 
thawed  by  the  sun’s  rays  during  the  day,  could  not  endure  the 
sudden  chill  of  returning  frost  at  night. 

Plant  your  evergreens,  therefore,  fearlessly  in  exposed  situa- 
tions ; and  care  only,  in  severe  winters,  for  those  which  are  likely 
to  be  thawed  and  frozen  again  twice  in  twenty-four  hours. 

Rhododendrons  are  very  beautiful  shrubs,  and  grow  into  trees^ 
if  the  soil  agrees  with  them.  They  love  a bog  soil. 

The  Camelia  japonica  is  considered  a green-house  plant,  but  it 
becomes  hardy,  like  the  laurel,  if  care  is  taken  to  shelter  it  for  a 
few  winters,  when  it  gradually  adapts  itself  to  the  climate.  This 
is  troublesome,  perhaps,  as  most  things  are,  to  indolent  people  ; 
but  the  trouble  is  well  repaid  by  the  beautiful  flowers  of  the 
japonicas,  its  dark  leaves,  and  delicate  scent. 

The  gum  Cistus  is  a handsome  evergreen,  and  looks  well  any- 
where and  everywhere.  Some  straw  litter  spread  round  their 
roots  in  winter  is  a great  protection. 

All  evergreens  of  a hard-wooded  nature  are  propagated  rapidly 
by  layers  in  June  or  July.  This  is  the  method  : — Dig  round  the 
tree  or  shrub,  and  bend  down  the  pliable  branches ; lay  them 


72 


LADIES7  FLOWER  GARDENER. 


into  the  earth,  and  secure  them  there  with  hooked  or  forked 
sticks.  Lay  down  all  the  young  shoots  on  each  branch,  and 
cover  them  with  earth  about  five  inches  deep,  leaving  the  tops 
out  about  two,  three,  or  four  inches  above  ground,  according  to 
their  different  lengths.  If  these  branches  are  laid  in  June  or 
July,  they  will  root  by  Michaelmas;  but  if  they  are  laid  in 
October,  they  will  be  a twelvemonth  rooting. 

The  layers  of  Alaternuses  and  Phillyreas  will  sometimes  be 
two  years  rooting,  if  done  so  late  as  October  ; therefore  lay  down 
your  shoots,  impossible,  in  June.  Let  the  shoots  which  are  lay- 
ered be  those  of  the  last  summer’s  growth. 

You  may  propagate  shrubs  also  from  cuttings  in  February  and 
October.  Let  strong  shoots  be  chosen,  of  last  summer’s  growth  : 
choose  them  from  nine  to  fifteen  inches  long,  and,  if  you  can,  take 
about  two  inches  of  old  wood  with  the  shoots  at  their  base.  Trim 
off  the  lower  leaves,  place  the  cuttings  half  way  in  the  ground, 
and  plant  them  in  a shady  border  to  root.  Do  this  in  February, 
in  ‘preference  to  October,  as  everything  roots  earlier  from  spring 
operations.  You  may  also  plant  cuttings  in  June,  but  keep  them 
moist  and  shady. 

October  is  a good  month  for  taking  up  suckers  of  lilacs,  roses, 
&c.,  and  for  all  sorts  of  transplanting  in  its  varieties.  It  is  also 
the  month  to  transplant  the  layers  of  such  shrubs  as  were  laid  in 
the  previous  October. 

I subjoin  a list  of  hardy  deciduous  shrubs  and  evergreens,  not 
too  tall  to  admit  into  a moderately  sized  flower  garden  : — 


DECIDUOUS  SHRUBS  OF  LESSER  GROWTH. 


Arbutus , Strawberry  tree 
Common 
Double-flowering 
Red- flowering 
Eastern,  01  Andrachne 


Almond , common 
White-flowering 
Early  dwarf,  single  flowei 
Double  dwarf 


Althcea  frutex , striped 


EVERGREEN  SHRUBS. 


73 


Red 

White 

Blue 

Purple 

Pheasant’s  eye 
Andromeda , striped 
Evergreen 

Azalea , with  red  flowers 
White 

Berberry , common,  red  fruit 
Stoneless,  red  fruit 
White  fruit 

Bladder-nut,  three-leaved 
Five-leaved 
Broom , the  Spanish 
Double-flowering 
Yellow  Portugal 
White  Portugal 
Lucca 

Bramble , double-flowering 
American  upright 
White-fruited 
Dwarf 
Thornless 

Chionantlius, Fringe,  or  Snowdrop  tree 
Candleberry  Myrtle , broad-leaved 
Long-leaved 
Fern-leaved 
Oak-leaved 

Cherry,  double-blossomed 
Cornelian 
Dwarf  Canada 

Currant , with  gold  and  silver-blotch- 
ed leaves 

With  gooseberry  leaves 
Pennsylvanian 
Dogwood , the  common 
Virginia 
Great-flowering 
Newfoundland 

Empetrum , black-berried  heath 
Guelder  Rose , common 
Double,  or  snowball 
Carolina 

Gold-blotched  leaf 
Currant-leaved 
Hydrangea , white-flowering 
Honeysuckle , early  red  Italian 
Early  white  Dutch 
Late  Dutch 
Late  red 


Long-blowing 
Large  scarlet  trumpet 
Small  trumpet 
Oak-leaved 
Early  white  Italian 
Early  red  Italian 

Ivy , deciduous,  or  Virginian  creeper 
Jasmine , the  common  white 
Common  yellow  Italian 
Gold-striped  leaved 
Silver-striped  leaved 
Lilac , blue 
White 

Purple,  or  Scotch 
Persian,  with  cut  leaves 
Persian,  white-flowered 
Persian,  blue-flowered 
Lonicera , upright  Honeysuckle 
Red-berried 
Blue-berried 
Virginian 
Tartarian 
Mezereon , white 
Early  red 
Late  red 
Purple 

Mespilus , spring-flowering 
Lady  Hardwick’s  shrub 
Peach , double-flowering 
Privet , common 
Silver-striped 
Yellow-blotched  leaves 
Ptelea , or  American  Shrub  Trefoil 
Pomegranate , single-flowering 
Double 

Robinia , or  false  Acacia 
Common 
Yellow-flowered 
Scarlet-flowered,  or  rose  acacia 
Caragana 

Rhamnus , or  Buckthorn 
Common 
Sea  buckthorn 
Yellow-berried 
Creeping  evergreen 
Raspberry , double-flowering 
Virginian  sweet-flowering 
Rose,  in  every  variety 
Spircea  frutex , common  red 
Scarlet 
i White 


4 


74 


LADIES  FLOWER  GARDENER. 


Sumach , scarlet 
Large  downy 
White 
Virginia 
Elm-leaved 
A Myrtle-leaved 
Carolina 

Syringa , common 
Dwarf  double-flowerin 
Scorpion  Senna 


Smilax , broad-leaved 
Blotched-leaved 

Tulip  Tree 

Tamarisk , the  French 
German 

Viburnum , or  Wayfarer 
Common 
Stripe-leaved 
American  broad-leaved 
Maple-leaved 


EVERGREENS. 


Alaternus,  common 
Blotched-leaved 
Jagged-leaved,  plain 
Ditto,  striped 
Silver-striped 
Gold-striped 
Cistus , or  Rock  Rose 

Gum  Cistus,  with  spotted  flowers 
With  plain  white  flowers 
Purple  sage-leaved 
Male  Portugal 
Bay-leaved  gum 
With  hairy  willow  leaves 
Black  poplar-leaved 
Waved-leaved 

Purple,  or  true  Gum  Cistus  of 
Crete,  with  other  varieties 
Cytisus , Neapolitan 
Canary 

Siberian  and  Tartarian 
Laurustinus.  common 
Broad,  or  shining-leaved 
Rough-leaved 
Oval-leaved 
Bay , broad-leaved 
Narrow- leaved 
Phillyrea , the  true 
Broad-leaved 
Privet-leaved 
Prickly-leaved 
Olive-leaved 
Gold-edged 
Silver-edged 
Rosemary  edged 
Juniper , common 
Swedish 
Sclavonian 


Canada 

Jasmine , evergreen 
Pyracantha 
Ivy , common 
Striped-leaved 
Virginian 

Irish,  or  quick-growing 
Honeysuckle , evergreen 
Rose , the  evergreen 
Rhododendron , dwarf  Rose  Bay 
Kalmia , olive-leaved 
Broad-leaved 
Thyme-leaved 
Coronilla , narrow-leaved 
Broad-leaved 
Magnolia , laurel -leaved 
Lesser  bay-leaved 
Arbor  Vitce , common 
China 
American 

Cypress , common  upright 
Male  spreading 
Bignonia , the  evergreen 
Widow  Wail 
Locust  of  Montpelier 
Medicago , Moon  Trefoil 
Stonecrop  Shrub 
Ragwort , the  sea 
Holly,  the  common 
Carolina  broad-leaved 
Yellow-berried 
Many  varieties 
Laurels , common 
Portugal 
Alexandrian 
On/?,  Ilex,  or  evergreen 
Kermes,  or  scarlet-bearing 


EVERGREEN  SHRUBS. 


75 


Gramuntian,  holly-leaved 
Carolina  live 

Germander , shrubby,  of  Crete 
j Euonymus,  evergreen  Virginia 
Virginia  Groundsel  Tree 


Wormwoods  lavender-leaved 
Spurges  or  wood  laurel 
Kneeholms  or  Butcher’s  Broom 
Horse-tail , shrubby 


In  pruning  shrubs,  be  careful  to  cut  out  the  long  rambling 
shoots  of  the  last  summer’s  growth,  which  disfigures  their  appear- 
ance. Cut  away,  also,  branches  of  shrubs  which  interlace  each 
other,  that  every  shrub  may  stand  clear  and  well-defined.  Take 
away  their  suckers,  and  let  each  shrub  be  kept  to  a single  stem, 
as  I have  before  observed. 


76 


ladies’  flower  gardener. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

ON  HOUSE  AND  WINDOW  GARDENING. 

(by  MR.  CHARLES  MACKINTOSH.) 

*HE  culture  of  flowering  and  sweet-scented  plants,  as  orna- 
ments in  human  dwellings,  has  been  practiced  from  such 
remote  antiquity  that  no  one  can  name  the  date  of  its 
origin.  House  plants  are  also  a kind  of  ornaments  which  all  the 
labors  of  the  most  refined  art  can  never  exceed  or  even  reach  ; 
and  hence  in  the  most  refined  and  luxurious  states  of  society, 
flowers  maintain  a high  place  among  the  leading  ornaments  ; and 
the  assembly-rooms  of  beauty  and  fashion,  and  the  banqueting- 
halls  of  the  noble  and  the  great,  would  look  tame  and  barren 
without  those  most  beautiful  and  most  appropriate  decorums. 

Farther,  it  is  one  of  the  great  merits  of  these  lovely  produc- 
tions of  nature,  that  they  are  for  the  humble  as  well  as  for  the 
high.  The  humblest  window  in  the  most  obscure  and  crowded 
court  of  a city  may  have  its  flower- pot ; and  they  who  are  cut 
off  by  occupation  or  other  circumstances  from  the  free  range  of 
growing  nature,  may  still  command  a little  vegetable  kingdom  of 
their  own  in  a few  well-selected  and  carefully-attended  flowers. 

A species  of  ornament,  which  is  in  its  own  nature  so  pleasing 
and  so  innocent,  which  requires  far  less  labor  and  expense  than 
many  other  ornaments  of  very  inferior  value,  and  which  adapts  itself 
to  every  imaginable  class  of  society,  is  surely  worthy  of  the  study, 
the  encouragement,  and  the  care  of  all  who  seek  happiness  to 
themselves,  or  wish  to  promote  the  happiness  of  others. 


HOUSE  PLANTS. 


77 


That  there  is  no  want  of  love  for  such  plants  is  evident  from 
the  places  in  which  thev  appear ; but  the  kind  and  state  of  the 
plants  very  generally  show  that  there  is  a great  want  of  know- 
ledge, both  in  their  selection  and  their  management.  In  order 
to  contribute  a little  to  the  supplying  of  this  defect,  we  propose 
to  offer  a very  brief  compendium  of  what  the  French  £nd  Ger- 
mans call  “ Window  Gardening  and  in  order  to  render  what 
we  state  as  clear  as  possible,  we  shall  divide  it  into  several  heads, 
or  points. 


PLANTS  PROPER  FOR  WINDOW  CULTURE. 

As  the  situation  of  these  plants  is  different  from  what  they 
occupy  in  their  natural  state,  it  becomes  necessary  to  select  such 
as  are  capable  of  accommodating  themselves  to  circumstances  ; 
and  as  the  unfavorable  circumstances  of  house  plants  are  chiefly 
want  of  free  and  pure  air,  and  of  light,  and  in  those  species  which 
are  accustomed  to  long  seasons  of  repose  in  the  winter,  to  uniform 
temperature,  these  circumstances  must  be  kept  in  mind  in  the 
selection.  Rooms,  especially  in  crowded  cities,  are  the  most 
unnatural,  and,  on  that  account,  the  very  worst  situations  in 
which  plants  can  be  placed  ; and  therefore,  if  healthy  plants  and 
an  abundance  of  bloom  are  sought  for,  variety  must  be  sacrificed. 

Plants  which  will  continue  healthy  for  a long  time  in  the  con- 
fined air  of  rooms,  are  generally  those  which  have  a peculiar 
surface,  or  texture  in  the  foliage  : such  are  many  of  the  Aloes , 
Cactuses,  Mesembryanthemums,  among  what  are  called  succulent 
plants  ; and,  in  a higher  temperature,  some  of  the  curious  Epi- 
phytes, or  the  natural  order  Orchidece.  We  recollect  once  seeing 
a very  interesting  collection  of  more  than  two  hundred  species, 
growing  in  a high  state  of  perfection,  in  the  house  of  an  amateur 
of  succulent  plants,  living  in  the  Grand  Sablon  at  Brussels.  The 


78 


LADIES7  FLOWER  GARDENER. 


room  containing  them  was  fitted  up  much  in  the  same  way  as  an 
ordinary  library,  with  abundance  of  light  shelves  round  the  walls, 
and  a large  table  in  the  middle  of  the  room,  on  which  were  placed 
the  pots  containing  the  plants.  At  night,  the  room  was  lighted 
up  by  an  elegant  glass  lamp,  and  it  was  heated  by  one  of  those 

ornamental  stoves  which  are  so  common  on  the  Continent.  Alto- 

« 

gether,  it  had  a very  handsome  appearance. 

The  Chinese  are  very  attentive  to  the  house  culture  of  many 
of  the  orchideous  epiphytse,  and  thereby  greatly  increase  the 
beauty  and  the  fragrance  of  their  apartments  ; they  have  them 
in  ornamental  vases  and  baskets,  and  even  suspended  in  the  air, 
where  they  last  for  many  years  and  flower  beautifully.  Some  of 
them  continue  in  flower  for  many  months,  and  diffuse  the  most 
delightful  fragrance  during  the  night.* 

The  reason  why  the  succulent  and  epiphytous  plants  answer 
so  well  for  house  culture  is,  that  their  winter  is  one  of  drought 
and  not  of  cold,  and  that  the  latter  especially  have  little,  and 
some  of  them  no  mould  at  the  roots  in  their  natural  situations. 
But  there  has  been  hitherto  a prejudice  against,  or  at  all  events 
an  ignorance  of,  and  want  of  attention  to,  the  culture  of  succu- 
lent plants  in  this  country.  This  is  unwise ; for  many  of  them 
are  exceedingly  beautiful,  highly  fragrant,  and  better  adapted  for 
house  culture  than  any  plants  whatever.  They  are  singularly 
curious  and  varied  in  their  structures ; and,  generally  speaking, 
they  require  less  light,  air,  and  moisture,  than  other  plants. 

Next  to  them,  in  point  of  eligibility  for  house  culture,  may  be 
reckoned  such  plants  as  have  coriaceous  leaves,  that  is,  have  their 
leaves  firm,  and  with  a smooth  and  compact  epidermis, — such  as 
oranges,  pittosporums,  myrtles,  and  others  of  similar  texture ; 
these  are  found  to  have  organs  much  better  adapted  to  confined 

* Renanthera  coccinea  is  one  of  the  finest  of  these,  and  was  first  flowered 
in  this  country  by  the  author  of  this  paper. 


HOUSE  PLANTS. 


79 


air  than  plants  which  have  the  leaves  small  or  of  delicate  texture. 
Some  tribes,  as  the  heaths,  the  Epacridece , and  the  whole  race  of 
pinnate-leaved  and  papilionaceous  flowered  plants,  are  wholly 
unfit  for  house  culture. 

TREATMENT  OF  HOUSE  PLANTS. 

Water,  heat,  air,  and  light,  are  the  four  essential  stimulants  to 
plants ; water,  heat,  and  air,  to  promote  growth ; and  light  to 
render  that  growth  perfect. 

Water,  heat,  and  air,  man  can  command  at  his  pleasure  by 
artificial  means  ; but  over  light,  as  an  element  of  the  perfect 
growth  of  plants,  we  have  less  control.  To  be  beneficial  to  plants, 
light  must  come  directly  from  the  sun  ; and  therefore  the  plants 
should  be  so  placed,  as  that  it  may  act  upon  them  with  as  little 
as  possible  of  that  refraction  and  decomposition  which  it  suffers 
when  it  passes  obliquely  through  glass,  or  any  other  medium 
except  the  air.  Plants  grown  in  the  open  air,  and  with  such  free 
exposure  to  the  light  as  their  habits  require,  not  only  develop  all 
their  parts  in  their  proper  form,  but  their  leaves,  flowers,  and 
fruits,  have  their  natural  colors,  odors,  and  flavors.  Plants  ex- 
cluded from  light  have  not  their  natural  color,  odor,  nor  flavor, 
they  make  little  or  no  charcoal  in  the  woody  part,  the  leaves  are 
not  green,  and  if  they  do  flower  and  fruit,  which  is  rarely  the 
case,  the  flowers  are  pale  and  scentless,  and  the  fruit  is  insipid. 
This  has  been  proved  by  many  experiments,  of  which  the  blanch- 
ing of  celery  and  endive  by  earthing  up,  and  that  of  a cabbage 
by  the  natural  process  of  hearting,  are  familiar  instances.  A 
geranium  placed  in  a dark  room  becomes  first  pale,  then  spotted, 
and  ultimately  white ; and  if  brought  to  the  light  it  again  ac- 
quires its  color. 

If  plants  kept  in  the  dark  are  exposed  to  the  action  of  hydrogen 
gas,  they  retain  their  green  color,  though  how  this  gas  acts  has 


80 


ladies’  flower  gardener. 


not  been  ascertained.  Some  flowers,  too,  such  as  the  crocus  and 
tulip,  are  colored  though  grown  in  the  dark. 

Light  seems  to  be  fully  as  essential  to  plants  as  air  or  heat,  and 
while  it  acts  beneficially  on  the  upper  surfaces  of  the  leaves,  it 
appears  to  be  injurious  to  the  under  surfaces,  at  least  of  some 
plants ; for  in  whatever  way  a plant  is  placed,  it  contrives  to  turn 
the  upper  surfaces  of  its  leaves  to  the  light.  Professor  Lindley 
is,  we  believe,  making  some  experiments  on  this  subject. 

Plants  in  rooms  turn  not  only  their  leaves,  but  their  branches 
to  the  window  at  which  the  light  enters,  and  a plant  may, ’by 
turning  it  at  intervals,  be  made  to  bend  successively  to  all  sides ; 
but  such  bendings  weaken  the  plant,  and  thus  it  is  an  excessive 
or  unnatural  action.  This  turning  of  the  plant  to  the  light  is 
always  of  course  in  proportion  to  the  brightness  of  that  light  as 
compared  with  the  other  sides  of  the  plant.  Flowers,  too,  open 
their  petals  to  the  light,  and  close  them  in  the  dark,  or  in  some 
cases,  as  in  that  of  the  crocus,  when  a cloud  passes  over  the  sun. 
The  same  flower,  and  also  some  others,  will  open  their  petals  to 
the  light  of  a lamp  or  candle,  and  close  them  again  when  that  is 
withdrawn. 

It  follows  as  a necessary  consequence,  that  in  rooms,  plants 
should  be  placed  as  near  the  window  as  possible,  that  the  win- 
dows should  have  a south  exposure,  and  that  they  should  be  as 
seldom  as  possible  shaded  with  blinds  or  otherwise.  If  placed 
at  a distance  from  the  windows,  plants  should  be  frequently 
changed,  and  to  place  them  permanently  on  tables  or  man  el- 
shelves  is  bad  management. 

Air  is  as  necessary  to  the  health  of  plants  as  light ; but  air  :an 
find  its  way  where  light  cannot,  and  therefore  it  requires  less  C2,re 
from  the  cultivator.  If  the  air  is  too  close,  opening  the  door  and 
windows  produces  a change,  the  warm  air  escaping  at  top,  and 
cold  air  coming  in  below  ; but  on  opening  the  windows  of  a warm 


HOUSE  PLANTS.  81 

room  in  cold  weather,  care  must  be  taken  not  to  chill  the  plants 
by  leaving  them  in  the  cold  current. 

The  heat  of  ordinary  dwelling-houses  is  quite  enough  for  such 
plants  as  we  would  recommend  for  general  culture  in  rooms,  only, 
in  very  cold  weather,  the  plants  should  be  removed  a little  further 
from  the  windows.  The  blinds  and  shutters  are  usually  a suffi- 
cient protection  during  the  night ; and  we  may  remark  that  plants 
in  rooms  are  more  frequently  killed  by  too  much  heat  than  by  too 
much  cold. 

Spring  and  autumn  are  the  times  of  the  year  at  which  window 
plants  require  the  greatest  attention.  It  is  usual  to  have  the 
plants  outside  the  windows  even  during  the  night  in  the  summer 
season,  and  kept  in  the  house  both  night  and  day  in  the  winter 
season.  In  the  intermediate  seasons  of  spring  and  autumn  the 
plants  are  frequently  placed  in  their  summer  situation  during  the 
day,  and  it  is  desirable  that  then  they  should  be  placed  in  their 
winter  situation  during  the  night.  Our  climate  is  so  variable  at 
those  seasons,  that  we  not  only  have  summer  during  the  day,  and 
winter  during  the  night,  but  -whole  days  of  summer  and  winter 
alternating  with  each  other.  Sometimes  we  have  warmer  days  in 
April  than  in  May  or  June,  and  occasionally  we  have  more  severe 
frosts  in  the  beginning  of  September,  than  any  which  occur  again 
till  November  is  nearly  over.  Now  it  is  not  the  absolute  heat  or 
cold,  but  the  rapidity  of  the  transition  from  one  to  the  other 
which  is  injurious  to  plants,  and  therefore  it  is  absolutely  necessary 
for  all  such  as  would  have  their  house  plants  in  the  perfection  oi 
beauty,  to  attend  to  those  circumstances.  This  is  more  especially 
necessary  in  towns,  where  the  people  are  much  less  interested  in 
the  changes  of  the  weather,  and  therefore  much  less  observant  of 
them  than  they  are  in  the  country ; and  we  have  no  doubt  that 
more  plants  are  destroyed  from  want  of  attention  to  those  varia- 
ble periods  of  the  year  than  from  any  other  cause.  It  is  a safe 


82 


ladies’  flower  gardener. 


rule  to  trust  no  plant  less  hardy  than  a common  Geranium  out- 
side the  window  all  night,  earlier  than  about  the  twentieth  of 
June,  or  later  than  the  first  of  September.  No  doubt  there  are 
many  nights  before  the  first  of  these  times,  and  after  the  latter, 
during  which  the  plants  might  remain  in  the  open  air  without 
injury.  There  is,  however,  no  knowing  what  a night  may  bring 
forth  at  those  inconstant  seasons,  and  therefore  the  safe  plan  is 
not  to  leave  the  plants  to  chance. 

When,  as  often  happens,  plants  get  slightly  injured  by  rost, 
cold  water  should  be  sprinkled  on  them  before  the  sun  reaches 
them,  and  this  sprinkling  ought  to  be  continued  as  long  as  any 
appearance  of  frost  remains  on  the  foliage. 

Water  is  often  very  injudiciously  applied  to  plants  in  rooms, 
and  the  evil  arises  from  falling  into  the  opposite  extremes  of  too 
much  and  too  little.  Fear  of  spoiling  the  carpet,  forgetfulness, 
and  sometimes  a dread  of  injuring  the  plant,  are  the  chief  causes 
of  an  under  supply  of  water.  On  the  other  hand,  many  have  a 
notion  that  such  plants  should  be  watered  every  day,  or  at  stated 
periods,  without  inquiring  whether  it  be  necessary  or  not.  Saucers 
or  pans  are  often  placed  under  flower- pots  to  prevent  the  water, 
which  escapes,  from  soiling  the  apartment,  but  in  these  cases  the 
saucers  should  be  partly  filled  with  gravel,  to  prevent  the  roots 
from  being  soaked  with  water,  or  the  water  which  lodges  in  the 
saucer  should  be  removed. 

Fanciful  and  elegant  baskets  of  wire  or  wicker-work,  and  plant- 
tables  are,  perhaps,  preferable  to  common  stages.  The  baskets 
should  have  a pan,  of  zinc,  copper,  or  other  metal,  and  over  this 
a bottom  pierced  with  holes,  or  a grating  of  wire,  on  which  the 
pots  are  to  be  placed.  The  pan  is  generally  about  an  inch  deep, 
and  has  a plug  or  other  contrivance  by  which  the  surplus  water 
may  be  drawn.  Plant- tables  can  be  constructed  in  the  same  man- 
lier, and  admit  of  an  endless  variety  of  forms,  according  to  the 


HOUSE  PLANTS. 


83 


taste  of  the  owner.  In  either  of  these  the  pots  may  be  wholly 
concealed  by  green  moss,  or  cut  paper,  so  that  nothing  but  the 
plants  themselves  may  appear. 

Water  is  as  essential  to  the  whole  plant  as  it  is  to  the  roots,  be- 
cause they  are  liable  to  collect  dirt,  and  thereby  to  be  injured ; 
they  should,  therefore,  be  frequently  washed  over  with  a syringe 
having  a rose  to  it,  and  in  order  to  perform  this  operation  pro- 
perly, the  plants  must  generally  be  removed  to  some  other  apart- 
ment where  they  should  remain  till  they  are  dry.  In  winter  this 
operation  must  be  performed  in  mild  weather  only ; it  should  be 
done  in  an  apartment  not  colder  than  that  in  which  the  plants 
usually  stand,  and  the  water  should  be  about  milk  warm.  When 
the  plants  are  in  baskets  or  on  tables,  they  can  be  removed  and 
washed  without  deranging  their  order.  Plants  which  have  large 
and  leathery  leaves,  such  as  oranges,  pittosporums,  camellias,  and 
myrtles,  may  be  washed  with  a sponge,  or  if  very  foul  they  may 
be  washed  with  soap,  and  the  soap  carefully  removed  by  pure 
water.  Loose  dust  may  be  removed  by  a pair  of  bellows.  At- 
tention to  cleanliness  greatly  increases  the  vigor  of  the  plant. 

House  plants  are  greatly  benefited  by  being  placed  out  of 
doors  in  the  summer  months,  especially  during  gentle  showers  . 
and  such  as  have  no  other  convenience  may  advantageously  place 
them  outside  the  windows.  They  may  also  be  syringed  and 
washed  in  this  position,  and  if  the  owner  is  not  in  possession  of 
one,  a common  watering-pot,  held  high,  so  that  the  water  may 
fall  on  the  plant  with  considerable  force,  is  a tolerable  substitute. 

Plants  respire  by  their  leaves,  as  animals  do  by  their  breathing 
apparatus,  and  it  is  on  this  account  that  keeping  the  leaves  clean 
is  so  very  essential  to  the  health  of  plants.  Indeed,  the  dust 
which  collects  on  them,  and  interrupts  their  respiration,  is  one  of 
the  greatest  evils  which  can  befall  plants,  especially  in  rooms  and 
on  balconies  in  towns.  The  respiring  pores  are  generally  large 


84 


LADIES7  FLOWER  GARDENER. 


in  proportion  as  the  leaves  are  so ; and  this  is  one  of  the  reasons 
why  delicate-leaved  plants  are  not  so  well  adapted  for  house  cul- 
ture as  those  which  have  the  leaves  larger  and  firmer. 

Light  has  also  a considerable  effect  in  promoting  the  healthy 
action  of  leaves,  and  many  plants  fold  up  their  leaves  in  the  dark, 
or  even  when  the  sky  is  lowering.  This,  though  it  has  no  resem- 
blance to  sleep  in  animals,  has  been  called  the  sleep  of  plants, 
and  the  curious  reader  may  find  an  interesting  notice  of  it  in  the 
“ Amcenitates  Academicse  ” of  Linnaeus. 

THE  SUPPLY  OF  HOUSE  PLANTS. 

There  are  many  ways  of  doing  this ; but  to  those  who  have 
the  opportunity,  and  choose  to  be  at  the  expense,  there  is,  per- 
haps, none  better  than  that  of  contracting  for  the  year  with  some 
skilfull  and  respectable  nurseryman  ; in  this  case  the  plants  will 
be  attended  by  the  contractor,  and  kept  in  the  best  condition. 
Much  pleasure  is,  however,  sacrificed  by  those  who  adopt  this 
mode,  inasmuch  as  the  chief  enjoyment  of  plants  arises  from  the 
feeling  that  they  are  the  nurslings  of  our  own  care  ; and  it  is 
astonishing  how  strongly  the  judicious  treatment  of  plants  leads 
to  judicious  management  in  all  other  matters. 

Plants,  except  such  as  are  novelties  and  sought  only  by  the 
curious,  may  always  be  had  at  moderate  prices  from  respectable 
growers.  Covent  Garden  furnishes  an  abundant  supply  for  Lon- 
don, and  those  who  are  not  so  particular  may  have  them  of  the 
hawkers.  In  dealing  with  these  people,  some  care  is  however 
necessary  ; very  many  of  the  plants  which  they  offer  for  sale  are 
thrown  away  or  stolen,  and  in  both  cases  they  are  taken  up  with- 
out any  regard  to  the  preservation  of  the  roots,  and  thus  there  is 
a considerable  chance  against  their  success.  Those  injured  plants 
are  made  to  look  healthy  for  a little  time  by  means  of  an  over 


HOUSE  PLANTS.  85 

supply  of  water,  but  they  soon  languish  in  the  possession  of  the 
purchasers. 

Another  very  hazardous  mode  of  purchasing  plants  is  at  those 
sales  which  are  very  frequently  got  up  in  the  spring  and  autumn. 
At  these,  purchasers  have  no  security  that  the  plant  is  healthy, 
or  that  it  is  what  it  professes  to  be,  and  thus  they  often  pay  a 
higher  price  for  a worthless  article  in  a diseased  state,  than  a re- 
gular nurseryman  would  charge  them  for  a good  plant  in  the 
finest  condition.  Such  a nurseryman  has  always  character  at 
stake,  but  the  other  parties,  generally  speaking,  have  none. 


MANAGEMENT  OF  BULBS  IN  GLASSES. 

This  is  a favorite  mode  of  house  culture,  and  the  bulbs  best 
adapted  for  it  are  hyacinths,  polyanthus-narcissus,  Van  Thol,  and 
other  tulips,  crocus,  Persian  iris,  narcissus,  colchicum,  Guernsey 
lily,  jonquil,  and  others. 

Spring-flowering  bulbs  are  usually  purchased  in  September, 
and  the  autumnal  ones  in  July  and  August,  and  the  largest  and 
best-formed  bulbs  should  be  chosen  ; an  abundant  supply  may 
be  obtained  at  little  cost  at  the  seed-shops  and  nurseries.  To  be 
blown  in  winter  or  spring,  the  bulbs  are  placed  in  water  in  Octo- 
ber, and  so  on  in  succession  till  February  or  March;  and  for 
autumn  and  early  winter,  they  are  placed  in  the  water  in  August 
and  September.  Dark-colored  glasses  are  the  best,  as  they  pre- 
vent the  light  from  decomposing  the  roots  of  the  plants.  Rain 
water  is  preferable  to  any  other,  and  it  should  be  changed  fre- 
quently, not  less  than  once  every  third  or  fourth  day,  to  prevent 
its  getting  putrid  ; and  in  performing  this  operation  care  must  be 
taken  both  in  withdrawing  and  in  replacing  the  roots.  This  is 
necessary  only  till  the  flowers  have  expanded  ; for  after  this  the 
plants  may  be  left  undisturbed  until  the  flowers  have  decayed. 


86 


ladies’  flower  gardener. 


The  water  which  is  supplied  must  not  he  colder  than  that  which 
is  withdrawn,  or  than  the  general  temperature  of  the  apartment. 
Much  heat  is  not  necessary  for  such  plants,  because  they  flower 
better  the  more  slowly  their  vegetation  proceeds.  Chimney- 
pieces  and  other  warm  situations  are  not  nearly  so  well  adapted 
for  those  bulbs  as  stages  near  the  window,  or  the  window-sill 
itself. 

A better  mode  of  growing  those  bulbs  than  the  common  mode 
in  glasses,  would  be  in  a table  with  a deep  pan,  and  a wire  grat- 
ing on  the  top.  This  might  be  placed  about  nine  inches  from  the 
bottom  of  the  pan,  and  the  roots  arranged  on  it,  the  taller  ones 
in  the  center,  and  those  of  more  lowly  growth  towards  the  sides. 
The  water  in  the  pan  might  be  drawn  off  by  a plug,  and  fresh 
water  supplied,  without  in  the  least  disturbing  the  plants. 

Bulbs  may  also  be  grown  in  fine  white  sand,  kept  constantly 
moistened,  and  in  this  way  very  beautiful  blooms  may  be  obtained. 

NOSEGAYS  AND  CUT  FLOWERS. 

Though  these  are  very  acceptable  to  most  persons,  there  are 
few  who  rightly  understand  the  art  of  keeping  them  long  in  a 
fresh  state,  or  of  reviving  them  when  they  have  faded.  It  is 
true,  that  when  a flower  or  branch  is  cut  off  from  its  parent  plant, 
its  support  is  thereby  destroyed ; but  still  some  flowers  may  be 
kept  in  great  beauty  for  a much  longer  period  than  others,  and 
many  for  a far  longer  time  than  is  generally  done,  or  even  sup- 
posed possible. 

For  this  purpose,  flowers  should  be  gathered  early  in  the 
morning,  but  not  till  the  dew  be  nearly  dried  off  them.  They 
should  be  placed  in  a flat  basket,  or  on  a tray,  so  as  not  to  press 
upon  and  crush  each  other  ; and  they  should  be  neatly  cut,  and 
not  mangled  or  bruised.  When  thus  gathered,  they  should  be 


HOUSE  PLANTS. 


87 


covered  with  a sheet  of  paper,  and  immediately  conveyed  to  the 
apartment  where  they  are  to  be  used,  if  that  apartment  be  near 
at  hand.  But  if  they  are  to  be  sent  to  any  distance,  they  should 
be  placed  in  tin  cases,  such  as  botanists  use  when  collecting  spe- 
cimens. We  have  sent  flowers,  in  such  cases,  for  several  hundred 
miles,  and  found  most  of  them  in  good  condition  at  the  end  of  a 
journey  of  three  or  four  days’  continuance.  In  this  way  the 
Dutch  florists  send  specimens  of  their  finest  flowers  not  only  to 
England,  but  to  more  distant  parts  of  continental  Europe.  Our 
owrn  florists  send  to  the  metropolis,  for  competition  at  exhibitions, 
flowers  from  Cornwall,  from  the  north  of  England  and  from  Scot- 
land, and  they  arrive  without  the  least  decay.  They  are  placed 
in  wooden  or  tin  boxes,  having  an  internal  arrangement  of  small 
phials,  fixed  under  a covering  of  tin  or  wood,  perforated  with 
holes,  just  large  enough  to  admit  the  stalks  of  the  flowers,  the 
ends  of  which  are  placed  in  the  water  of  the  phials,  and  in  this 
way  they  are  conveyed  with  perfect  safety. 

Flowers  should  not  be  cut  during  sunshine,  or  kept  exposed  to 
the  solar  influence  ; neither  should  they  be  collected  in  large 
bundles  and  tied  tightly  together,  as  this  invariably  hastens  their 
decay.  When  in  the  room  where  they  are  to  remain,  the  ends 
of  the  stalks  should  be  cut  clean  across  with  a very  sharp  knife 
(never  with  scissors),  by  which  means  the  tubes  through  which 
they  draw  the  water  are  left  open,  so  that  the  water  ascends 
freely,  which  it  will  not  do  if  the  tubes  of  the  stems  are  bruised 
or  lacerated.  An  endless  variety  of  ornamental  vessels  are  used 
for  the  reception  of  such  flowers,  and  they  are  all  equally  well 
adapted  for  the  purpose,  so  that  the  stalks  are  inserted  in  pure 
water.  This  water  ought  to  be  changed  every  day,  or  once  in 
twTo  days  at  the  furthest,  and  a thin  slice  should  be  cleanly  cut 
off  from  the  end  of  each  stalk  every  time  the  water  is  removed, 
which  will  occasion  fresh  action  and  revive  the  flowers.  Water, 


88  ladies’  flower  gardener. 

about  milk  warm,  or  containing  a small  quantity  of  camphor,  will 
sometimes  revive  decayed  flowers.  The  best  method  of  applying 
this,  is  to  have  the  camphor  dissolved  in  spirits  of  wine,  for  which 
the  common  camphorated  spirits  of  the  druggists’  shops  will  be 
quite  sufficient ; and  to  add  a drop  or  two  of  this  for  every  half 
ounce  of  water.  A glass-shade  is  also  useful  in  preserving  flowers ; 
and  cut  flowers  ought  always  to  be  shaded  during  the  night,  and 
indeed  at  all  times  when  they  are  not  purposely  exhibited.  The 
following  are  some  of  the  genera  of  plants  the  flowers  of  which 
remain  longest  after  being  cut : — Gnaphalium , Astelma,  Heli - 
chrysum , Phoenocoma , Aphelexis , and  others,  which  the  French 
have  designated  “ immortal  flowers,”  from  remaining  unchanged 
by  decay,  hold  the  first  rank.  Next  to  these  come  the  whole 
natural  order,  Proteacece , many  of  Graminece , several  of  Cruciferce, 
several  in  Rhamneacce , several  in  Cassuvice — the  genus  Acacia  in 
Leguminosce , all  Calycanthacece , most  of  Myrtacece , most  of  Dip - 
sacecZj  several  of  Composite v,  most  of  Ericece — the  genera  Laven - 
dula , Sideritis  and  Phlomis , in  Labiates , all  Orobanchece , all 
PlumbaginecBy  all  Amaranthacece , many  of  Orchidece , Strelitzia , 
and  Heliconia  in  Masaeece . 

INSECTS  AND  DISEASES  OF  HOUSE  PLANTS. 

Plants  in  rooms,  especially  geraniums  and  roses,  are  very  liable 
to  be  attacked  by  aphides.  These  may  be  easily  removed  by 
tobacco  smoke  or  tobacco  water ; and  where  the  smell  is  not 
offensive,  smoke  blown  from  a common  tobacco  pipe  is  as  effec- 
tual as  any  other  method.  Camphorated  water  may  be  used  by 
those  who  dislike  the  smell  of  tobacco.  Mildew,  occasionally, 
though  rarely,  attacks  house  plants.  It  appears  like  a white 
powder,  and  is  supposed  to  consist  of  minute  fungi ; but  these 
fungi  are  not  the  original  disease,  but  its  consequences,  and  their 


HOUSE  PLANTS. 


89 


appearance  shows  that  the  plant  has  been  in  impure  air  or  other- 
wise improperly  treated.  Sulphur  or  camphor  will  effectually 
remove  this  mildew  ; and  a scaly  insect  of  the  coccus  tribe,  which 
appears  occasionally  on  oranges,  camellias,  and  similar  plants, 
may  be  removed  by  a sponge  and  water. 

Many  persons  have  a dislike  to  plants  in  houses  as  being  un- 
healthy ; and  as  this  dislike  is  in  a great  measure  groundless,  we 
may  notice  it.  Dr.  Priesjjey  was  the  first  to  show  that  the  leaves 
of  plants  absorb  carbonic  acid  gas  by  their  upper  surfaces,  and 
give  out  oxygen  by  their  under  ones,  thereby  tending  to  purify 
the  air  in  as  far  as  animal  life  is  concerned  ; because  carbonic  acid 
gas  is  pernicious  to  animals,  and  oxygen  is  what  that  life  acquires. 
It  is  in  the  light,  however,  that  these  operations  are  carried  on  ; 
for  in  the  dark,  plants  give  out  carbon  ; and  this  may  be  one 
reason  why  plants  grown  in  the  dark  have  little  or  no  charcoal  in 
their  substance.  It  does  not  appear,  however,  that  any  of  the 
scentless  products  given  out  by  plants  are  injurious  to  human 
beings ; because  those  who  live  among  accumulated  plants  are 
not  less  healthy  than  others  ; though  many  persons  feel  dislike 
and  even  pain  from  the  odors  of  particular  plants,  in  a way  not 
very  easily  accounted  for. 

On  the  Continent  in  general,  and  in  France  and  Germany  in 
particular,  flowers  of  all  sorts,  but  particularly  the  most  fragrant, 
are  admitted  into  the  saloons,  chambers,  and  even  bed-rooms  of 
people  of  all  classes  ; and  they,  rather  than  complain  of  any  ill 
effects  arising  from  their  presence,  complain  more  of  the  difficulty 
of  procuring  them  in  sufficient  abundance.  The  flowers  most  in 
demand  for  the  chambers  of  the  French  and  Germans  are,  oranges, 
jasmine,  carnations,  honey-suckle,  mignonette,  olive,  rocket,  rose, 
violet,  wall-flower,  rosemary,  stock,  lavender,  savory,  oleander, 
hyacinth,  lilac,  syringa,  heliotrope,  narcissus,  &c.,  all  sweet-smell- 


90  ladies’  flower  gardener. 

ing  flowers ; and  these  they  indulge  in  to  a very  considerable 
extent. 

We  may  safely  conclude,  then,  that  plants  admitted  into  rooms 
to  the  extent  that  they  are  in  general,  can  produce  no  effect  in- 
jurious to  the  health  of  persons  in  general,  but,  on  the  contrary, 
will  afford  amusement  to  the  mind  and  exercise  to  the  body,  both 
of  which  are  so  necessary  towards  the  enjoyment  of  good  health. 
The  mind  will  be  agreeably  exercised  in  contemplating  the  beauty 
of  the  flowers,  but  more  so  still  if  the  study  of  their  respective 
parts,  natures  and  structures,  in  a botanical  or  physiological  point 
of  view,  be  at  the  same  time  attended  to.  An  agreeable  and 
rational  exercise  will  be  provided  for  the  body,  if  the  proprietor, 
particularly  if  of  the  softer  sex,  take  the  entire  management  of  her 
little  Window  Garden  into  her  own  hands. 


DOMESTIC  GREENHOUSES. 


91 


CHAPTER  IX. 


DOMESTIC  GREENHOUSES.* 


EFORE  entering  on  a description  of  this  apparatus,  the 


circumstances  under  which  it  was  discovered  may  be 


briefly  adverted  to.  Mr.  Ward,  the  gentleman  to  whom 
we  are  indebted  for  the  discovery,  is  a surgeon,  residing  in  Well- 
close  Square,  London.  From  his  earliest  youth  Mr.  Ward  has 
been  attached  to  botanical  pursuits  ; but  living  in  a densely  popu- 
lated neighborhood,  surrounded  with  manufactories,  and  enve- 
loped in  the  smoke  of  London  in  its  very  worst  form,  he  had  been 
compelled  to  give  up  the  cultivation  of  plants,  until  the  following 
simple  incident  seemed  to  point  out  a mode  by  which  he  could 
follow  his  favorite  amusement  with  some  degree  of  success.  He 
had  buried  the  chrysalis  of  a sphinx  in  some  moist  mould,  which 
was  inclosed  in  a glass  bottle  covered  with  a top.  In  watching 
the  bottle  from  day  to  day,  he  observed  that  when  exposed  to 
the  warmth  of  the  sun  the  moisture  rose  from  the  mould,  and 
became  condensed  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  glass,  and  again 
fell  back  upon  the  mould  during  the  night,  thus  keeping  up  a 
continual  moisture  in  the  atmosphere  within  the  glass  ; he  also  ob- 
served about  a week  prior  to  the  final  change  of  the  insect,  a 
seedling  fern  and  grass  appear  on  the  surface  of  the  mould. 
After  having  secured  the  insect,  Mr.  Ward  set  himself  to  observe 

* The  materials  for  this  paper  are  chiefly  from  Chambers’s  Edinburgh 
Journal,  with  some  slight  additions  from  Mr.  Ellis’s  paper  read  to  the  Bo- 
tanical Society  of  Edinburgh. 


92 


LADIES7  FLOWER  GARDENER. 


the  development  of  these  plants  in  this  confined  situation.  He 
placed  the  bottle  outside  the  window  of  his  study,  where  the 
plants  continued  for  several  years  to  exhibit  a healthy  vegetation, 
suggesting  at  the  same  time  further  experiments,  which  have  led 
to  a most  extraordinary  result,  when  we  consider,  that  by  this 
simple  application  of  the  laws  of  nature  as  regards  atmosphere, 
the  most  forbidding  local  circumstances  may  be  overcome,  and 
that  any  person,  whether  inhabiting  the  most  humble  or  the  most 
splendid  dwelling,  provided  it  be  freely  exposed  for  a few  hours 
every  day  to  the  sun's  light,  has  it  in  his  power  to  rear  and  cul- 
tivate a miscellaneous  collection  of  plants,  to  enjoy  the  beauty  of 
their  appearance,  and  to  watch  their  progress  through  all  the 
stages  of  their  growth,  at  an  expense  so  insignificant  as  to  be 
within  the  means  of  every  man  even  in  very  moderate  circum- 
stances. 

To  do  this  he  must  provide  an  apparatus  consisting  of  a box, 
a stand,  and  a glass  roof,  of  a size  according  to  his  desires  and 
means.  We  shall  suppose  one  is  wanted  of  a small  size  to  stand 
in  a window  in  an  apartment  of  limited  dimensions.  The  stand, 


we  will  suppose,  is  one  foot  ten  inches  in  height,  the  box  wliic 
is  to  contain  the  mould  eight  inches  and  a half,  and  the  glass 
frame  one  foot  seven  inches  and  a half ; — in  all  four  feet  two  in- 


DOMESTIC  GREENHOUSES. 


93 


ches  in  height  by  three  feet  in  length  and  a foot  and  a half  in 
breath.  If  elegance  is  aimed  at,  the  box  should  be  made  of 
mahogany,  and  supported  on  four  legs,  furnished  with  movable 
castors ; the  box  which  is  to  contain  the  soil,  eight  and  a half  in- 
ches in  height,  should  be  made  of  well-seasoned  St.  Domingo 
mahogany,  steeped  in  Kyan’s  composition,  for  a fortnight ; the 
sides,  one  and  a quarter  inches  thick,  mitered  and  dove-tailed  to- 
gether at  the  corners.  The  bottom  of  the  box  should  be  Hon- 
duras mahogany,  one  inch  thick,  formed  of  numerous  small  pieces. 


framed  and  flush-paneled,  and  arranged  so  as  best  to  resist  the 
yielding  of  the  wood.  To  give  it  greater  strength,  two  cross 
pieces  or  ties  stretch  from  side  to  side  at  equal  distance  from 
'ach  other ; these  are  dove-tailed  on  each  side,  thus  dividing  the 
box  into  three  compartments,  but  leaving  open  spaces  under  the 


94 


ladies’  flower  gardener. 


ties  and  holes  through  their  centers  to  permit  the  moisture  to  per- 
colate freely  through  the  whole  of  the  mould.  The  bottom  being 
properly  fitted,  the  sides  are  fixed  to  it  with  brass  nails — no  iron 
being  used  in  any  part.  When  completed  and  filled  with  plants, 
the  apparatus  appears  something  like  the  cut  on  p.  93. 

At  the  upper  edge  of  the  box  a groove  is  sunk  to  receive  the 
lower  edge  of  the  glass  roof  which  rests  securely  in  it.  This 
groove  is  lined  with  brass ; its  inner  lip  is  one  sixteenth  of  an 
inch  lower  than  the  outer,  and  at  each  end  is  a notch  one  fifth  of 
an  inch  only  above  the  bottom  of  the  groove  to  allow  the  con- 
densed moisture  which  trickles  down  the  inside  of  the  glass  to 
flow  back  into  the  mould. 

The  frame- work  cover  of  which  we  have  now  to  speak  is  made 
of  brass,  with  a door  on  one  side,  made  to  fit  close.  The  glass 
used  for  it  may  be  of  flattened  crown-glass  ; that  for  the  door 
should  be  plate-glass.  The  panes  must  be  fitted  in  the  frames 
with  great  care,  and  with  a putty  specially  made  for  the  purpose, 
which  should,  when  dry,  receive  three  coats  of  paint.  Along  the 
top  of  the  roof,  hooks  or  brass  rods  may  be  placed,  from  which 
small  pots  may  be  suspended.  The  whole  of  the  frame-work 
should  be  well  fitted,  and  nicely  put  together,  so  as  to  preclude 
as  far  as  possible  all  interchange  between  the  air  in  the  case  and 
that  in  the  room. 

We  now  come  to  the  preparation  for  the  plants.  Lay  the 
bottom  of  the  box  with  pieces  of  broken  earthenware,  to  a depth 
of  two  inches,  as  an  open  subsoil.  Next,  lay  a stratum  of  turfy 
loam  one  inch  deep,  and  fill  in  the  remainder  of  the  space  with 
soil,  composed  of  equal  portions  of  peat  and  loam,  mixed  with 
about  one-twentieth  part  of  rough  white  sand,  free  from  iron. 
The  artificial  garden-plot  is  now  ready  to  receive  the  plants. 
Plant  these  in  the  usual  manner,  and  then  shower  over  them,  with 
a fine  rose  watering-pot,  from  three  to  four  gallons  of  water,  till 


DOMESTIC  GREENHOUSES. 


95 


the  soil  be  pretty  well  saturated,  and  the  liquid  begins  to  run  off 
by  the  two  openings  in  the  bottom.  After  draining  thus  for 
twenty-four  hours,  cork  up  the  holes,  place  the  glass-case  on  the 
box,  and  the  operation  will  be  finished. 

After  the  first  preparation,  the  plants  require  little  or  no  care  ; 
the  case  need  only  be  opened  for  the  removal  of  dead  leaves,  or 
for  a little  trimming,  when  required.  Plants  in  open  flower-pots 
are  exposed  to  the  vicissitudes  of  change  of  climate,  and  require 
constant  watering  ; but  the  plants  in  these  cases  seem  to  be  in- 
dependent of  any  change  of  temperature  in  the  air,  and  water 
themselves.  The  moisture  rises  by  the  sun’s  influence  from  the 
moistened  earth,  cherishes  the  leaves  of  the  plants  in  its  aerial 
condition,  and  during  the  cool  of  night  falls  to  the  earth  again 
like  rain  or  dew.  In  this  manner  there  is  a constant  succession 
of  rising  and  falling  of  moisture,  in  imitation  of  the  great  processes 
of  nature,  daily  going  on  in  the  fields  around  us.  The  plant-case 
is  a little  world  in  itself,  in  which  vegetation  is  supported  solely 
by  the  resources  originally  communicated  to  it. 

Not  the  least  remarkable  part  in  the  economy  of  the  case  is 
the  preservation  of  atmospheric  purity.  To  all  who  reflect  for 
the  first  time  on  this  subject,  it  will  seem  incomprehensible  how 
the  plants  can  possibly  thrive  and  blossom  without  the  occasional 
interchange  of  fresh  air  with  the  atmosphere.  This  certainly  does 
appear  extraordinary,  yet  it  is  ascertained  by  experiment  that  no 
such  reinvigoration  is  requisite.  To  account  for  the  phenomena, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  explain  the  constitution  of  atmospheric  air, 
and  the  means  adopted  by  nature  for  its  purification. 

Air  consists  of  three  gases  in  close  mechanical  union — nitrogen, 
oxygen  and  carbonic  acid,  in  the  proportion  of  about  79  of  nitro- 
gen, 20  oxygen,  and  1 of  carbonic  acid,  in  100  parts  of  pure  air. 
In  this  mixed  composition,  the  essential  element  for  the  support 
of  respiration  in  both  animals  and  plants,  and  also  for  combustion, 


96 


LADIES  FLOWER  GARDENER. 


is  the  oxygen,  the  nitrogen  being  little  else  than  a diluent  to 
modify  the  strength  of  the  oxygen.  It  was  long  believed  by  men 
of  science  that  plants  possessed  the  power  of  exuding  oxygen, 
and  so  formed  a prime  agent  for  restoring  vitiated  air  to  purity. 
Later  investigations,  however,  chiefly  by  French  chemists,  have 
made  it  evident  that  plants  have  no  such  power,  unless  when 
placed  under  the  influence  of  the  sun’s  rays,  or,  in  other  words, 
that  solar  light  is  the  grand  cleanser  of  the  atmosphere,  and  with- 
out which  both  plants  and  animals  languish  and  die.  With 
respect  to  plants  in  particular,  it  is  ascertained  that,  while  inhaling 
oxygen  and  expiring  carbonic  acid,  their  leaves  possess  the 
remarkable  property,  in  conjunction  with  the  sun’s  light,  of 
re-transforming  the  carbonic  acid  into  oxygen.  At  night,  when 
the  light  of  day  has  departed,  the  expired  carbonic  acid  may  be 
detected  in  the  neighborhood  of  plants ; and  hence  one  cause  of 
injury  to  health  by  breathing  night  air  ; but  when  the  morning 
sun  again  bursts  upon  the  scene,  a great  chemical  process  com- 
mences in  the  atmosphere — the  carbonic  acid  is  decomposed, 
oxygen  is  evolved,  and  all  nature  rejoices  in  a recreation  of  its 
appropriate  nourishment. 

A question  will  here  readily  occur — what  species  of  plants  are 
best  adapted  for  these  domestic  greenhouses  ? We  are  fortu- 
nately enabled  to  answer  this  inquiry  by  referring  to  a learned 
paper  on  the  subject  by  Mr.  Ellis,  which  was  read  to  the  Botani- 
cal Society  of  Edinburgh,  January  13,  1839,  and  afterwards 
published  in  the  Gardener’s  Magazine,  and  also  as  a separate 
pamphlet.  According  to  this  gentleman’s  statement,  the  plants 
most  suitable  are  “ those  which  partake  largely  of  a cellular 
structure,  and  possess  a succulent  character,  and  especially  those 
which  have  fleshy  leaves  ; whilst,  on  the  contrary,  the  continued 
humidity  is  unfavorable  to  the  development  of  flowers  of  most 
exogenous  plants,  except  such  as  naturally  grow  in  moist  and 
shady  situations.”  Plants,  therefore,  which  have  to  grow  and 


DOMESTIC  GREENHOUSES. 


97 


bloom  in  cavernous  and  moist  situations,  or  in  moist  and  warm 
climates,  are  best  adapted  for  these  cases.  However,  within  this 
class  of  vegetables  there  are  many  beautiful  and  highly  luxuriant 
plants,  which  it  would  afford  no  small  pleasure  to  contemplate. 
The  following  is  a list  of  plants  from  various  countries,  which 
were  set  in  a box,  under  Mr.  Ellis’s  directions,  and  examined  from 
nine  to  twelve  months  afterwards  : 


Chamae'rops  humilis 

Italy,  Sicily,  Spain  Increased  l-4th  its  original 

Centiana  verna 

England 

Flowered,  but  no  difference 
in  size 

^diantum  Capillus  Veneris 

England 

Increased  l-8th 

Primula  farinosa 

Scotland 

Flowered ; atmosphere  ra- 
ther damp  for  it 

Primula  scotica 

Scotland 

Flowered;  atmosphere  ra- 
ther damp  for  it 

Ferbascum  Myconi 

Scotland 

Increased  l-8th 

^ndrosace  villosa 

Scotland 

Flowered ; not  very  healthy 

Chamae'rops  Palmetto 

Carolina 

Increased  l-3d 

Dionae'a  Muscipula 

Carolina 

Made  1-Sth 

Sarracenia  purpurea 

Carolina 

Increased  4 times  its  origi- 
nal size 

Epigae'a  repens 

Carolina 

Increased  one-half 

Testudinaria  elephantipes 

Cape  of  Good  Hope  Made  a shoot  10  inches  long 

A'\oe  retusa 

Cape  of  Good  Hope  Made  l-3rd,  showing  flower 

.Rhododendron  chrysanthum 

Siberia 

Increased  one-half  [spikes 

Chamaecistus 

Austria 

Increased  l-3d 

Cycas  revoluta 

China 

Increased  l-8th 

.Nepenthes  distillatoria 

Ceylon 

Increased  2-3ds 

Cypripedium  venustum  in- 

Nepal 

Increased  l-5th 

signe 

Nepal 

Increased  l-4th 

Agave  geminiflora 

Mexico 

Increased  l-3d 

^Goodyera  discolor 

Mexico 

No  perceptible  difference 

*£chinocactus  multiplex 

Mexico 

Increased  one-half 

^peruviana 

Mexico 

Increased  one-half 

myriacantha 

Mexico 

Increased  one-half 

Formosa 

Mexico 

Increased  l-3d 

O'ttoni 

Mexico 

Increased  l-4th 

Candida 

Mexico 

Increased  one -half 

Epiphyllum  truncatum 

Brazil 

Increased  2-3ds 

Cereus  flagelliformis 

Peru  ' 

Increased  one-half 

Lycopodium  stoloniferum 

Cuba 

Very  luxuriant 

Those  marked  thus  * are  growing  in  fancy  pots,  and  suspended  from 
the  roof  of  the  plant-case. 

5 


ladies’  flower  gardener. 


The  alternate  action  of  vitiation  and  purification  is  emphatically 
described  as  follows  by  Mr.  Ellis,  in  the  pamphlet  before  us  : — 
“ Under  a bright  sunshine,  the  two  processes  by  which  carbonic 
acid  is  alternately  formed  and  decomposed  go  on  simultaneously ; 
and  their  necessary  operation,  in  as  far  as  regards  the  condition 
of  the  air,  is  that  of  counteracting  each  other.  Hence,  though 
both  may  be  continually  exercised  in  favorable  circumstances,  the 
effects  of  neither  on  the  atmosphere  can  be  ascertained  by  ordi- 
nary means  ; and,  consequently,  though,  in  the  experiments  of 
De  Saussure  with  common  air,  the  production  and  decomposition 
of  carbonic  acid  by  plants  in  sunshine  must  have  been  continually 
going  on,  yet,  in  all  the  analysis  which  he  made,  the  air  was 
found  unchanged,  either  in  purity  or  volume  ; in  other  words,  the 
processes  of  formation  and  decomposition  of  this  acid  gas  exactly 
counterbalanced  each  other. 

“ Of  the  two  processes  which  have  now  been  described  (con- 
tinues our  authority),  each  may  be  considered  as  in  its  nature  and 
purpose  quite  distinct  from  the  other ; hence  their  efforts  may  be 
readily  distinguished ; neither  do  they  necessarily  interfere,  when 
actually  working  together.  The  first  or  deteriorating  process,  in 
which  oxygen  gas  is  consumed,  goes  on  at  all  times  and  in  all 
circumstances  when  vegetation  is  active.  It  requires  always  a 
suitable  temperature  in  which  to  display  itself ; and  when  that 
temperature  falls  below  a certain  point,  which  is  very  variable  in 
regard  to  different  plants,  the  process  is  more  or  less  completely 
suspended,  again  to  be  renewed  when  the  temperature  shall  re- 
turn. This  conversion  of  oxygen  into  carbonic  acid  is  as  neces- 
sary to  the  evolution  of  the  seed  as  to  the  growth  of  the  plant, 
and  is  all  that  is  required  for  germination.  But  the  plant  requires 
something  more  ; for  if  light  be  excluded,  vegetation  proceeds 
imperfectly,  and  the  plant  does  not  then  acquire  its  proper  color, 
and  other  active  properties  which  it  ought  to  have.  The  chief 


DOMESTIC  GREENHOUSES. 


99 


organs  by  which  the  consumption  of  oxygen  gas  is  effected  are 
the  leaves ; and  its  purpose,  in  great  part  at  least,  seems  to  be 
that  of  producing  some  necessary  change  in  the  sap  during  its 
transmission  through  those  organs,  on  its  way  from  the  vessels  of 
the  wood  to  those  of  the  inner  bark,  whereby  it  may  be  rendered* 
fit  for  the  purposes  of  nutrition  and  growth.  In  its  nature  and 
object,  therefore,  as  well  as  in  the  specific  change  which  it  pro- 
duces in  the  air,  this  process  closely  resembles  the  function  of 
respiration  in  animals,  and  may  thus  with  propriety  be  deemed  a 
physiological  process.  The  second,  or  purifying  process,  in  which 
oxygen  gas  is  evolved,  differs  in  all  respects  from  that  which  has 
just  been  described.  It  is  in  a great  measure  independent  of 
temperature  ; at  least  it  proceeds  in  temperatures  too  low  to  sup- 
port vegetation,  provided  light  be  present — an  agent  not  required 
for  germination,  nor  essential  to  vegetable  development.  The 
organs  by  which  this  process  acts  on  the  air  are,  as  before,  the 
leaves ; not,  however,  by  changing  the  qualities  of  the  sap  in  the 
vessels  of  those  organs,  but  by  producing  changes  in  the  chromule, 
or  colorable  matter,  in  their  cells,  to  which  it  imparts  color  and 
other  active  properties.  In  doing  this,  it  does  not  convert  the 
oxygen  gas  of  the  air  into  carbonic  acid,  but,  by  decomposing  that 
acid  gas,  restores  to  the  air  the  identical  portion  of  oxygen  of 
which  the  former  process  had  deprived  it.  The  former  process, 
carried  on  by  the  agency  of  the  oxygen  gas  of  the  air,  was  essen- 
tial to  living  action,  and  affected  the  well-being  of  the  whole 
plant ; that  exercised  by  the  agency  of  light  is  not  necessary  to 
life,  is  local,  not  general  in  its  operation,  and  is  capable  of  pro- 
ceeding in  circumstances  and  under  conditions  incompatible  with 
living  action.  By  withdrawing  the  air  altogether,  or  depriving  it 
of  oxygen  gas,  vegetation  soon  ceases  through  the  whole  plant ; 
but  the  exclusion  of  light  from  any  part  of  the  plant  affects  that 
part  only ; and  even  the  total  exclusion  of  that  agent  only  de* 


100 


LADIES*  FLOWER  GARDENER. 


prives  the  plant  of  certain  properties  necessary  to  its  perfection, 
but  not  essential  to  its  life.  These  differences  in  the  processes  by 
which  oxygen  gas  is  alternately  consumed  and  evolved,  during 
the  vegetation  of  plants  in  sunshine,  are  so  manifest,  both  in  their 
nature  and  effects,  as  to  satisfy  the  ascription  of  a name  to  the 
latter  process  distinct  from  that  given  to  the  former.  It  might, 
perhaps,  be  denominated  the  chemical  process,  in  contradistinc- 
tion to  that  named  physiological. 

“ It  would  contribute  much,  we  think,  to  simplify  our  inquiries 
concerning  vegetation,  to  bear  in  mind  these  distinctions ; to  con- 
sider the  one  process  as  accomplished  by  the  agency  of  the  air, 
and  essential  to  the  life  and  growth  of  the  plant ; the  other,  as 
subordinate,  depending  on  the  agency  of  light,  and  though  neces- 
sary to  the  perfection  of  vegetation,  yet  not  essential  to  its  exist- 
ence. In  this  manner  each  process  may  be  followed  out  sepa- 
rately, both  in  regard  to  its  immediate  effects  and  remoter  con- 
sequences, without  clashing  with  the  other ; and  the  apparently 
discordant  and  even  contradictory  phenomena  which  on  a first 
view  they  seem  to  exhibit,  may  be  reconciled,  and  considered,  not 
less  in  theory  than  in  fact,  as  conspiring  together  to  form  one 
harmonious  and  perfect  whole.,, 

After  these  explanations,  little  need  be  added  respecting  the 
supply  of  pure  air  to  domestic  greenhouses.  The  deterioration 
of  the  atmosphere  in  the  case  is  daily  counteracted  by  an  oppo- 
site process  of  purification,  so  that  amidst  the  vicissitudes  of  per- 
petual change,  the  air  is  maintained  in  a state  of  nearly  uniform 
composition  and  purity,  and  serves  over  and  over  again  for  all  tlio 
purposes  of  vegetation.  It  may,  however,  be  stated,  to  prevent 
misconception,  that  the  more  pure  the  air  of  the  apartment,  the 
plants  will  have  the  better  chance  of  thriving,  because  there  must 
necessarily  be  an  interchange  to  some  extent  betwixt  the  air  of 
the  room  and  the  case,  in  consequence  of  the  daily  expansion 


DOMESTIC  GKEENHOUSES. 


101 


from  heat,  and  nightly  condensation  from  cold.  This  interchange 
will  be  effected  by  the  minute  crevices  in  the  apparatus,  and 
therefore  requires  no  special  provision. 


102 


ladies’  flower  gardener. 


CHAPTER  X. 


MONTHLY  NOTICES. 


RECAPITULATION  of  the  work  which  each  month 
presents  to  the  gardener’s  notice  will  be  useful.  By 
occasionally  glancing  over  the  Monthly  Notices,  the  me- 
mory is  refreshed  ; and  it  will  be  found  that  even  the  three  winter 
months  allow  the  young  gardener  no  remission  from  labor. 
There  is  something  to  be  done  in  every  week  in  the  year — some- 
thing to  be  attended  to,  which  amuses  the  mind,  interests  the 
imagination,  and  benefits  the  general  tone  of  mental  and  physical 
health. 


JANUARY. 

Let  your  lawn  and  grass  walks  be  kept  neat  and  smooth,  by 
rolling,  this  month  ; and  if  any  part  of  the  grounds  require  fresh 
turf,  this  is  the  season -for  cutting  and  laying  it  down.  If  you 
live  in  the  neighborhood  of  a common,  that  is  the  best  ground 
for  cutting  turf,  as  the  herbage  is  short,  and  free  from  nettles, 
docks,  <fec.  Lay  it  down  firm  and  even,  allowing  for  the  sinking 
of  the  newly-laid  earth,  about  an  inch  or  two.  Roll  it  well,  after 
having  laid  down  the  turf. 

Keep  the  gravel  walks  also  from  weeds  and  moss,  and  roll 
them  in  dry  weather.  If  you  attempt  to  roll  gravel  in  wet  wea- 
ther, the  gravel  clings  to  the  roller. 

Dig  the  clumps  or  spots  where  you  mean  to  plant  evergreens, 
in  February  and  March,  that  the  ground  may  be  trenched  in 


MONTHLY  NOTICES.  103 

readiness.  The  frost  of  this  month  will  render  newly-dug  earth 
more  friable,  and  the  snow  will  enrich  it. 

If  the  weather  is  very  settled  and  mild,  you  may  still  plant 
out  hardy  deciduous  shrubs,  such  as  sweetbriars,  double 
bramble,  double-blossomed  cherry,  dwarf  almond,  jasmines, 
honeysuckles,  roses,  lilacs,  laburnums,  guelder  rose,  Spirsea  frutex, 
mezereons,  &c.  Transplant  each  shrub  with  a good  ball  of  earth 
round  its  roots. 

Prune  flowering  shrubs  now,  where  they  require  it,  with  a 
sharp  knife,  not  with  shears.  When  I say  “ flowering  shrubs,” 
I do  not  mean  shrubs  in  flower,  but  shrubs  that  do  flower. 

Transplant  suckers  from  the  hardy  flowering  shrubs,  if  they 
have  not  been  done  before.  Take  them  up  with  good  roots,  and 
support  them  neatly  with  stakes. 

Cuttings  of  young  shoots  of  hardy  deciduous  shrubs  may  be 
planted  in  mild  weather,  to  root,  and  form  good  plants  in  the 
autumn.  Layers  may  be  also  formed. 

Protect  all  the  choicer  kinds  of  flowering  shrubs,  and  all  cut- 
tings of  every  kind,  from  severe  frosts,  by  spreading  litter  over 
them. 

Plant  tulips  now — always  providing  the  weather  is  mild — to 
blow  late  in  the  year ; but  they  will  not  be  so  handsome  as  those 
which  were  planted  again  in  September  and  October. 

Plant  any  ranunculuses,  anemones,  &c.,  you  may  have  out  of 
the  ground,  to  come  in  late  blowing  ; but,  like  the  tulips,  they 
will  not  bear  such  fine  blooms.  Protect  everything  from  severe 
weather,  as  well  as  you  can,  this  month,  particularly  your  choicer 
sorts  of  bulbs,  and  tuberous-rooted  perennials. 

FEBRUARY. 

February  is  the  first  spring  month,  and  the  parterre  will  begin 
to  make  gradual  approaches  to  gaiety  and  life.  The  anemones. 


104 


LADIES7  FLOWER  GARDENER. 


hepaticas,  <fcc.,  will  now  bud  and  flower,  if  the  weather  is  genial ; 
and  the  crocus  and  snowdrop  will  put  forth  their  blooms  to  meet 
the  sun  on  his  returning  march. 

About  the  end  of  this  month,  you  may  begin  to  sow  the  hardy 
annuals.  T prefer  April,  but  it  may  not  be  convenient  always  to 
wait  so  long  ; therefore  sow  now  the  seeds  of  hawkweed,  lavatera, 
Venus’s  looking-glass,  Venus’s  navel  wort,  candytuft,  larkspurs, 
lupines,  convolvulus,  flos  Adonis,  dwarf  lychnis,  nigelia,  annual 
sunflowers,  <fcc. 

This  month,  you  may  plant  and  transplant,  fearlessly,  all  hardy, 
fibrous-rooted  flowering  perennials  and  biennials,  such  as  saxifrage, 
gentianella,  hepaticas,  violets,  primroses  of  all  sorts,  polyanthuses, 
double  daisies,  thrift,  &c. ; rose  campions,  rockets,  campanulas, 
sweet-williams,  hollyhocks,  scarlet  lychnis,  carnations,  pinks, 
monk’s-hood,  perennial  asters  and  sunflowers,  &c. 

Plant  cuttings  of  roses,  honeysuckles,  and  jasmines. 

If  the  weather  is  mild,  you  may  transplant  many  kinds  of 
evergreen  shrubs,  such  as  phillyreas,  alaternuses,  laurels,  laurus- 
tinus,  pyracanthas,  cistuses,  &c.  Let  there  be  a ball  of  earth 
round  their  roots,  when  you  take  them  out  of  the  ground. 

If  box  edging  is  required,  plant  it  now ; water  it,  and  the  plants 
will  soon  root. 

Dig  the  borders,  carefully  and  lightly,  with  your  garden  fork  ; 
make  the  garden  look  neat,  and  free  from  weeds ; clear  away 
dead  leaves  ; sweep  the  lawn  and  walks  ; and  let  spring  advance 
in  its  proper  order. 

MARCH. 

Now  plant  away.  Evergreens  cannot  be  moved  at  a better 
period.  Deciduous  flowering  shrubs  may  also  be  still  planted, 
such  as  Althaea  frutex,  syringas,  roses,  honeysuckles,  mezereons. 


MONTHLY  NOTICES.  105 

sumach,  laburnums,  lilacs,  jasmines,  candleberry  myrtles,  guelder 

roses,  &c. 

Where  the  borders  require  filling  up,  the  following  plants  may 
still  be  moved,  but  do  it  early  in  this  month  : — 

Lychnises,  campanulas,  Canterbury  bells,  tree  primroses, 
rockets,  sweet-williams,  wallflowers,  columbines,  monk’s-hood, 
rose  campions,  perennial  asters  and  sunflowers,  foxgloves,  &c. 

Sow  perennial  and  biennial  flower  seeds  about  the  last  week 
in  this  month.  Stake  your  hyacinths,  when  the  flower  stems  are 
tall. 

Plant  out  layered  carnations  of  last  year,  into  the  places  where 
they  ought  to  remain. 

Give  fresh  earth  to  any  plants  in  pots,  such  as  carnations,  pinks, 
auriculas,  double  sweet-williams,  double  stock  gillyflowers,  rock- 
ets, &c. 

Sow  annuals  of  all  hardy  kinds. 

Transplant  any  hardy  roses,  which  you  may  wish  should  blow 
late  in  the  year. 

Plant  box,  for  edgings,  still ; and  roll  the  lawn  and  grass  walks. 

Transplant  any  tenderer  kinds  of  annuals  which  you  may  have 
been  at  the  pains  of  raising  in,  or  procuring  from,  a hot-bed. 

Keep  the  garden  quite  free  from  weeds  and  dead  leaves. 

APRIL. 

Now  place  sticks  to  every  plant  or  stalk  requiring  support. 
Fix  the  sticks,  or  light  iron  rods,  firmly  in  the  ground  ; and  tie 
the  stems  to  each  stick  neatly,  in  two  or  three  places. 

Some  evergreens  may  yet  be  removed,  as  laurels,  laurustinus, 
Portugal  laurel,  cistuses,  arbutus,  magnolias,  pyracanthas,  &c. 

Propagate  auriculas,  by  slipping  off  their  suckers  and  offsets, 
this  month. 

6* 


106 


ladies’  flower  gardener. 


Sow  carnation  and  polyanthus  seeds  still.  Sow,  also,  perennial 
and  biennial  seeds. 

Where  any  perennial  or  biennial  fibrous-rooted  flowers  are 
wanted,  transplant  them  only  in  the  first  week  of  this  month,  and 
they  must  have  each  a good  ball  of  earth  attached  to  them ; but 
this  work  should  be  completed  in  February,  or  March  at  farthest. 

Every  sort  of  annual  may  now  be  sown. 

Take  care  of  your  hyacinths,  tulips,  ranunculuses,  and  ane- 
mones now,  for  they  will  be  hastening  into  bloom. 

Place  your  auriculas,  hyacinths,  &c.,  which  may  be  in  pots,  in 
a sheltered  place,  during  heavy  rains  or  winds  ; and  shelter  those 
flowers  which  are  in  the  borders  as  well  as  you  can.  Trim  them 
from  dead  leaves. 

Keep  your  lawn  and  grass  wralks  nicely  mown  and  rolled,  and 
your  borders  free  from  weeds  and  rubbish. 

MAY. 

Propagate  perennial  fibrous-rooted  plants  by  cuttings. 

Propagate  double  wall-flowers  by  slips  of  the  young  shoots  of 
the  head. 

Sow  annuals  for  succession  ; such  as  sweet-peas,  nasturtiums, 
lavatera,  lupines,  flos  Adonis,  &c. 

Take  up  those  hyacinths,  tulips,  &c.  which  have  done  flower- 
ing, and  dry  them  in  the  shade  to  put  away. 

Weeds  grow  quickly  now : hoe  them  up  wherever  you  see 
them.  Support  all  flowers  with  sticks  ; train  them  upright.  Clear 
away  all  the  dead  leaves  from  your  carnations,  and  gently  stir 
the  earth  round  them  with  your  smallest  trowel. 

Look  round  the  borders  now,  and  take  off  irregular  shoots. 


MONTHLY  NOTICES. 


107 


JUNE. 

Propagate  carnations  by  layers  and  pipings.  Propagate  double 
sweet-williams  and  pinks  by  layers  and  cuttings,  or  slips. 

Propagate  perennial  fibrous-rooted  plants  by  cuttings  of  the 
stalks. 

Transplant  the  large  annuals  from  the  seedling  bed  to  the 
places  where  they  are  to  remain.  Let  this  be  done  in  showery 
weather,  if  possible. 

Take  up  all  bulbs,  ranunculuses,  and  anemone  roots,  &c.,  as  the 
flowers  and  leaves  decay. 

Water  the  delicate  plants,  if  the  weather  proves  dry : give  a 
moderate  watering  every  evening,  but  never  in  the  heat  of  the 
day. 

Sow  yet  some  hardy  annuals,  such  as  ten- week  stocks,  virgin 
stock,  &c. 

Plant  out  China-asters,  Chinese  hollyhocks,  ten-week  stocks, 
large  convolvolus,  &c.,  but  let  each  root  have  a ball  of  earth 
round  it. 

Examine  the  perennial  and  biennial  plants,  to  cut  off  all  dead, 
broken,  or  decaying  shoots.  Trim  the  African  and  French  mari- 
golds from  their  lower  straggling  shoots,  that  they  may  present  a 
neat,  upright  appearance.  Trim  the  chrysanthemums,  which  are 
apt  to  branch  too  near  the  root,  and  stake  them  neatly. 

Plant  out  carnations  and  pink  seedlings  into  their  proper  places. 

Keep  everything  just  moderately  moist,  if  there  is  a long 
drought  in  this  month. 

JULY. 

You  may  lay  carnations  and  double  sweet-williams  still ; but 
let  it  be  done  before  the  end  of  the  second  week  in  this  month. 

Propagate  pinks  by  slips  and  pipings. 


108 


ladies’  flower  gardener. 


Transplant  the  seedling  auriculas  which  were  sown  last  year, 
as  also  the  seedling  polyanthus. 

Transplant  the  perennial  and  biennial  seedlings  which  were  not 
done  last  month,  to  remain  till  October. 

Take  up  all  bulbs  as  fast  as  they  decay  their  leaves.  If  this 
month  prove  hot  and  dry,  place  your  potted  carnations  in  a shel- 
tered situation,  and  keep  them  just  moist. 

Support  flowering  shrubs  and  plants,  and  cut  away  decayed 
stems.  Keep  the  borders  clean.  Mow  the  lawn  and  grass  walks. 
Plant  autumnal  bulbs. 

AUGUST. 

You  may  now  begin  to  propagate  some  double-flowered  and 
approved  fibrous-rooted  plants  the  end  of  the  month,  if  they  have 
done  flowering — such,  for  instance,  as  the  double  rose  campion, 
catchfly,  double  scarlet  lychnis,  double  rocket,  double  ragged 
robin,  bachelor’s  buttons,  gentianella,  polyanthuses,  auriculas,  &c. 

Sow  auricula  and  polyanthus  seed  on  a warm,  dry  day ; and 
remove  carnation  layers  to  some  place  where  they  may  remain 
till  October  to  gain  strength. 

Sow  seeds  of  bulbs. 

Sow  anemone  and  ranunculus  seed. 

Remove  all  bulbs  which  have  done  flowering. 

Cut  and  trim  edgings  of  box.  Clip  holly,  yew,  and  privet 
hedges. 

Gather  flower  seeds. 

Plant  autumnal  bulbs,  if  any  are  still  above  ground,  such  as 
colchicums,  autumnal  narcissus,  amaryllis,  and  autumn  crocus. 

Trim  the  flower  plants  ; mow  the  lawn  and  grass  walks,  and 
keep  every  department  in  neat  order. 


MONTHLY  NOTICES. 


109 


SEPTEMBER. 

Transplant,  in  any  moist  or  showery  weather  this  month,  the 
perennial  and  biennial  seedlings  to  their  proper  situations,  with  a 
ball  of  earth  round  their  roots. 

Propagate  fibrous-rooted  plants. 

Prepare  the  spots  where  you  mean  to  deposit  anemone  and 
ranunculus  roots  any  time  between  the  end  of  this  month  and  the 
end  of  October ; and  dig  all  beds  and  borders  which  are  vacant, 
to  prepare  them  also  for  receiving  roots  and  plants  next  month. 

Transplant  peonies,  flag  irises,  monk’s-hood,  fraxinella,  and 
such  like  plants,  to  part  their  roots  and  remove  each  root  to  its 
destined  position. 

Transplant  evergreens. 

Plant  cuttings  of  honey-suckles,  and  other  shrubs. 

Plant  hyacinth  and  tulip  roots  for  early  spring  bloom. 

Plant  box  by  slips  or  roots. 

Mow  grass  lawn  and  walks.  Clear  away  flower  stems,  and 
trim  flowering  plants. 

Sow  seeds  of  bulbous  flowers,  if  not  done  last  month. 

OCTOBER. 

This  is  a very  busy  month ; for  the  garden  should  now  be 
cleared  and  arranged  for  the  season. 

Transplant  all  sorts  of  fibrous-rooted  perennial  and  biennial 
plants  now  where  they  are  intended  to  remain. 

Put  the  bulbs  into  the  ground  again ; and  transplant  the 
different  layered  plants  into  their  respective  places. 

Prune  flowering  shrubs  of  all  sorts.  Plant  and  transplant  all 
hardy  deciduous  shrubs,  and  their  suckers. 


110 


ladies’  flower  gardener. 


Dig  up  and  part  the  roots  of  all  flowers  which  require  so  doing, 
and  replant  them. 

Plant  cuttings  of  honeysuckles,  laurels,  <fcc. 

Take  up  the  roots  of  dahlias,  and  put  them  carefully  away  till 
May. 

Trim  evergreens. 

Plant  box  edgings  ; cut  away  the  long,  sticky  roots,  and  trim 
the  tops  even. 

Mow  grass  walks  and  lawns,  and  weed  gravel  walks. 

NOVEMBER. 

Prepare  compost  for  a new  year  by  raking  dead  leaves,  soil, 
sand,  &c.,  in  a heap,  to  turn  well  over  occasionally.  Pour  the 
brine,  soap-suds,  &c.,  from  the  house  over  it. 

Transplant  still  all  hardy  kinds  of  flowering  shrubs,  suckers,  & c. 

Clear  the  borders  from  dead  annuals,  leaves,  stumps,  &c. ; 
shelter  the  choice  bulbs  and  double-flowering  plants. 

DECEMBER. 

Take  care  of  every  thing.  Protect  the  more  delicate  roots 
from  severe  frost,  by  strewing  ashes,  sand,  or  litter  over  them. 
Prune  shrubs,  and  dig  between  them. 

If  the  weather  is  open,  you  may  still  plant  hardy  sorts  of 
flowering  shrubs. 


INDEX 


Aconites 

Alaturnus,  Layers  of 
Amelioration  of  Soils  . . 
Amaryllis 
Annuals 

self-sown  . . 
to  sow 

how  to  water 
when  to  sow 
how  to  transplant 
to  trim 

List  of  less  tender  . . 
List  of  hardy^  . . 
Ants,  to  destroy  . . 
Anemone 

April,  List  of  Perennials  for 
Monthly  Notices  of 
Arrangement  of  Shrubs 
of  Flowers 

Arabian  Jasmine  ..  .. 

Arbutus 

Arbor  Vitae 

Arsenic  Water,  to  use 1 . . 
Aspect  for  Flowers 
Auriculas 

Compost  for 
Austrian  Briar 
August,  Monthly  Notice  for 
List  of  Perennials  for 
Avroncator 
Ayrshire  Rose 


33,34,45 

74 

..  21 
40 
20,  56 

57 

. . 58 

58 
..  58 

58 

..  60 
60 

..  61 
25 
..  47 

22 
..  105 
69 
..  19 

67 

..  70 

74 
..  59 

14 
30,45 
14 

..  65 

108 
..  23 

16 

..  66 


112 


INDEX, 


Beds,  planting 

Beds  of  Roses  •• 

Belladonna 

Biennials 

Propagation  of 
Seeds,  when  to  sow 
to  shelter  . . 
when  to  transplant 
List  of  hardy 

Blight 

Brine 

Bulbs 

soil  for 

when  to  take  up 
autumn-flowering  . . 
Seed  of 
to  replant  . . 
arrangement  of  . . 

List  of 
Cabbage  Rose 
Camellia  Japonica 
Canterbury  Bells 
Carnations 
China  Asters  . . 
to  train 

Chrysanthemums 
Cistus,  Gum  . . . • 

Clay,  how  to  improve  . . 
Clarkias 
Climbing  Rose 
Colchicums,  Soil  for  . • 

when  to  plant  . . 
Compost  for  Flowers 
Convolvulus  . . 

Creepers,  as  decorations 
Crocus 

autumnal,  when  to  plant 
Cuttings 


20 

..  65 

39 

..  20 

48,  52 
..  49 

52 

..  34 

49 

..  26 
50,51 
..  36 

36 
..  37 

37 
..  38 

40 
..  40 

41 

..  64 

71 

..  50 

28,50, 53 
..  56 

60 

..  56 

71 

..  13 

60 

..  66 

39 
..  40 

13 

. . 58 

18 

..  37 

40 
31 


INDEX, 


113 


Cutting,  of  Perennials 

Protection  for  . . 
of  Shrubs,  when  to  make 
Dahlias 
Daisies,  double 
Damask  Rose 

Dead  leaves,  to  collect  . . 

Deciduous,  term  explained 
Shrubs,  List  of 

December,  Monthly  Notice  for  . . 
Devices  for  training  Jasmine 
Digging,  when  to  be  done 
Domestic  Greenhouses  . . 

Double-flowering  Plants  . . 

to  shelter  . . . . 

Dress,  working 
Earwigs,  to  destroy 
Employment  in  Summer 
Evergreens 

how  and  when  to  transplant 

how  to  layer 

to  make  Cuttings  of 

to  prune 

Remarks  on 

List  of 

February,  Monthly  Notice  for  . . 

list  of  Perennials  for 
Fences  against  Hares  and  Rabbits 
Fibrous  root,  term  explained 
Flowers,  Aspect  for 
how  to  arrange 
Flower  Seeds,  how  to  sow 

self-sown,  how  to  treat 
Flowering  Shrubs,  how  to  plant 
Fly,  to  destroy  the  Green  . . 
Gardening,  remarks  on 
Gardens,  notices  of  old  English 
Garden,  general  remarks  upon  the 


28 

54 

72 

30 

34 
63 
14 
27 
72 

109 

68 

14 

91 

35 
52 

17 
25 

31 

69 

70 

71 

72 
75 
71 
74 

103 

22 

24 

27 

14 

18 
38 
57 
69 
66 
10 
10 
13 


114 


INDEX 


Garden,  laying  out  a . . • • « . . • 

Soil  for  . . . . . • • • • • # • 

Compost  for  . • . • . . . . 

Tools  necessary  for  . . . • . . • • 

Working  Dress  for  . • 

Gentian  . . . . . . . . . . 

Gentianella  . . . . • • . . • • 

Gillyflowers  . . . . • • . • • . 

Golden  Rod  . . • • 

Gravel  Walks  . . . . . • • • 

Green  Fly,  to  destroy  . . . . • . 

Ground,  management  of  . . . • 

to  prepare  for  Seeds  . . . • • • . . 

Gum  Cistus  . . . . • • • • 

Guernsey  Lily  . . . . • • 

Hand-glasses,  substitute  for  . . 

Hares,  to  protect  against 
Hepaticas  v . . 

Herbaceous,  term  explained 

Hollyhocks  . . . . . . . . • • 

Honesty 

Honeysuckles,  to  increase  . . 

Hyacinths  . . . , . . . . . . 

Improvement  of  Soils  . . . . , . 

Irises  • • ••  ••  ••  • • i • 

flag-leaved  . . . . . . . . . . 

Iron  Rods  for  Flowers  . . . • . . . . . . 

Stakes  for  Roses 

January,  Monthly  Notice  for  . . * . 

list  of  Perennials  for  . . . . 

Jasmines 

to  increase  . . . . . . • • 

to  renew  the  Soil  for  . . . . . . 

to  prune 

devices  for  training 

Jonquils  . . . . . * • • . . . • 

July,  Monthly  Notice  for  . . . ••  .. 

List  of  Perennials  for  . • • . . • 


18 

14 

14 

16 

17 

34 

30 

57 

34 

15 

66 

14 

57 

71 

39 

54 

24 

30 

27 

51 

50 

31 

38 

14 

37 

34 

26 

64 

102 

22 

67 

31 

68 

68 

68 

37 

107 

23 


INDEX. 


115 


June,  Monthly  Notice  for  . . . . 

• • 

.. 

..  107 

List  of  Perennials  for  . • • • 

M 

..  23 

Knob-rooted  Plants  . « • • 

• • 

..  30 

Ladies7  Garden  Tools  ••  •• 

..  16 

working  Dress  . . • • 

• • 

• • 

..  17 

Lawn  . . ^ . • • • • • 

..  15 

Laurel  . . . . • • • • 

• . 

..  70 

Laurel,  Portugal  • . . . • • 

. • 

..  71 

Laurestinas 

70 

Layering,  when  to  be  done 

. . 

..  54 

Layers  of  Biennials 

..  52 

of  Evergreens  . . 

• . 

..  71 

of  Alaturnus,  &c.,  when  to  be  done 

. . 

72 

Lilies  of  the  Valley 

. . 

..  34 

Management  of 

39 

Orange 

.. 

..  40 

Guernsey  and  Belladonna 

. . 

39 

Linen  as  a covering,  advantages  of 

..  54 

List  of  Flowers  for  each  month  • . 

• « 

22 

hardy  Perennials 

• • 

..  32 

Roses 

• • 

66 

hardy  climbing  ditto 

• • 

..  67 

bulbous  and  tuberous-rooted  Flowers 

, # 

..  41 

hardy  Biennials 

..  49 

London  Pride 

30 

Lychnis 

• • 

..  34 

double  scarlet  • • . . 

. • 

. . 28,  35 

Lychnidea 

• • 

..  28 

March,  Monthly  Notice  for  . • 

. . 

• . 

..  104 

List,  of  Perennials  for  . . . • 

..  22 

Martagons 

. . 

# # 

40 

Marigolds 

# . 

..  56 

May,  Monthly  Notice  for  . . 

• • 

106 

List  of  Perennials  for  . . 

• • 

..  22 

Michaelmas  Dais3T 

• t 

34 

Mignionette  . . . . . . 

• t 

..  59 

Mildew 

. , 

26 

M onthly  Rose 

• • 

..  65 

INDEX. 


116 


Monthly  Rose,  noticed 

• • 

4 4 

76 

Remarks  on 

• * 

t • 

..  14 

Moss  Roses  . . . • 

t 4 

• • 

4 4 

64 

Narcissus  . . . . . • 

• 4 

• • 

..  37 

yellow  autumnal 

• • 

• 4 

4 4 

37 

Neatness  essential  in  a Garden  . . 

4 • 

4 • 

..  26 

Night  Stock 

• • 

• • 

4 4 

52 

November,  Monthly  Notice  for 

4 4 

• 1 

..  110 

List  of  Perennials  for 

• « 

• 4 

4 4 

4 4 

24 

October,  Monthly  Notice  for 

• • 

♦ • 

..  109 

List  of  Perennials  for 

• • 

• • 

4 4 

4 4 

24 

Offsets  of  Perennials  and  Biennials 

• • 

..  34 

Bulbs 

• 4 

4 4 

• 4 

37 

Oil  paper  frames 

54 

Orange  Lilies  . . • . 

4 4 

40 

Orchis  tribe  . . . . 

• 4 

• 4 

..  38 

Pansies 

4 4 

29 

Peonies  . . . . . . 

• • 

• • 

30,  34 

Perpetual  Rose 

65 

Perennials 

• 4 

• 4 

..  27 

how  to  sow  • . 

28 

how  to  propagate  . • 

4 4 

..  28 

how  to  divide 

30 

when  to  add  soil  to 

4 • 

..  30 

list  of  hardy 

V 

32 

Persecarias  . . 

• 4 

• 4 

..  56 

Pinks 

28 

general  management  of  . . 

• • 

4 4 

29,  53 

Pickle  and  Brine  good  for  Flowers 

4 4 

51 

Pipings,  when  to  make 

• • 

• 4 

..  54 

how  to  make 

4 4 

53 

Phyllerias 

4 4 

70,  72 

Planting  Beds 

4 • 

21 

Shrubs,  method  of 

• 4 

69,  70 

Polyanthus 

30,  34 

Portugal  Laurel 

• • 

4 4 

..  71 

Primroses 

30 

Propagating  Biennials 

• • 

4 4 

..  52 

INDEX. 


117 


Pyramid  of  Roses  . • 

• • 

• • 

.. 

.. 

Pyracantha  . . . • . . 

• • 

• • 

9 9 

. . 

Qualities  of  Pinks  . • 

* • 

• • 

.. 

Rabbits,  to  guard  against  . • 

• • 

• • 

• • 

• • 

Ranunculus  . . . . 

• # 

« • 

• • 

Remarks  on  Gardens  . . . • 

• • 

• • 

• • 

. . 

Rockets,  double  . . 

• 

e • 

• • 

• • 

Rods,  for  Flowers,  Iron  • . 

• » 

• • 

• a 

• i 

Root- house,  to  construct  a . , 

• • 

« • 

• • 

• # 

Rhododendrons  . . . . 

• • 

• • 

• t 

, , 

Roses 

• * 

• • 

• • 

• • 

monthly  . . . • 

• * 

• « 

• « 

. . 

Remarks  on 

• • 

• • 

• • 

damask  . * 

• « 

• t 

. . 

cabbage  . . 

• * 

• * 

• • 

moss 

• • 

• • 

• • 

. . 

standard 

• • 

double  yellow  . . 

• • 

• • 

• e 

. . 

Austrian 

• • 

• • 

perpetual,  or  four-season 

• • 

. . 

Ayrshire  . . 

t • 

1 • 

Lady  Banks 

• • 

• • 

• • 

. . 

climbing  . . 

• • 

• 9 

soil  for  . . • . 

• * 

• * 

• • 

. . 

when  and  how  to  prune 

• • 

9 9 

• 9 

to  layer 

• • 

9 9 

. . 

disease  of  . ✓ 

V • 

• • 

4 • 

pyramids  and  beds  of 

• • 

9 9 

. . 

list  of 

• • 

• • 

• • 

66j 

Rosa  hybrida  multiflora 

• • 

• • 

. . 

Rustic  stages 

• • 

• • 

• * 

advantages  of  . . 

• e 

.. 

Salt,  observations  on  . * 

• •' 

• • 

water  for  cuttings 

Sand,  good  effects  of 

• • 

• • 

• • 

14, 

Saxifrage 

30, 

Seed  to  sow,  when  and  how,  Perennials 

• • 

• » 

• • 

27, 

Bulbs 


64 

70 

29 

24 

46 

13 

28 

26 

19 

71 

63 

65 

15 

63 

64 

64 

65 

65 

65 

65 

66 

66 

66 

64 

64 

64 

64 

64 

67 

66 

15 

16 

39 

55 

21 

34 

28 

37 


INDEX. 


113 


Seed,  Biennials  • • 

Annuals  . * 

how  to  prune  . . 

when  to  gather  • « 

Seedlings,  when  to  remove 
Pink  and  Carnation 
Seedling-bed,  to  protect  the 
September,  Monthly  Notice  for 
List  of  Perennials  for 
Shrubs,  arrangement  of 
how  to  plant 
when  to  transplant 
to  make  cuttings  of  • • 
when  to  take  suckers  off 
to  prune  . . 
notices  of  several 
list  of  deciduous 
evergreen 

Slipping,  how  to  perform  . . 

Snails,  to  destroy 
Snowdrops  . . • • 

Soapsuds,  to  use  . . • 

Soils,  improvement  of  . . 

amelioration  of 
Stages,  rustic  . . . ♦ 

Staking  plants 
Stocks,  ten-week 
Stock,  gilliflower 
night 

Stony  ground,  to  manage 
Sultan,  white  and  purple  . . 

Sunflower,  everlasting 
Sweet  Peas 

to  raise  early 
Sweet-williams 
Thrift 

Tools,  Ladies’  garden 

Transplant  Perennials  and  Biennials,  when  to 


48,  49 
..  56 

59 

..  52 

28 
..  27 

49 
..  109 
24 
..  69 

70 
..  70 

72 
..  72 

75 
..  70 

71 

..  74 

54 
..  25 

37 
14,  26 
13 

..  21 

15 
..  31 
56,  59 

..  50 

52 
..  14 

56 

..  34 

58 
..  59 

35,  50,  53 
..  30 

16 

..  34 


INDEX. 


119 


Trees,  to  ornament  the  trunks  of 
Tuberous  root,  term  explained  . • 

rooted  Flowers 

rooted  Flowers  and  Bulbs,  list  of  . . 
Tulips  . . 

Venus7  Looking-glass  • • • • 

Verbena,  scarlet  •• 

Violets  . . . • • • • • 

Wall-flowers  . . . . . . 

Window  Gardening  ••  ..  . . 


18 

27 

36 

41 

38 

59 

35 

29 

51 

76 


A BOOK  FOR  EVERY  BOY  IN  THE  COUNTRY. 


ELEMENTS 

OF 

AGRICULTURE: 


FOR  THE 

USE  OF  PRIMARY  AND  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


BY 

L.  BENTZ,  OF  FRANCE, 

Director  of  the  Normal  Primary  School  of  the  Meurthe,  Member  of  the  Royal  and  Central 
Societies  of  Nancy  and  Aurilliac. 

/ 

AND 

A.  J.  CHRETIEN  DE  ROVILLE, 

Professor  of  Rural  Economy  in  the  same  School,  Member  of  the  Agricultural  Society  of 
Nancy,  &c.,  &c. 

APPROVED  AND  RECOMMENDED  BY  THE  GOVERNMENTAL  COUNCIL 
OF  THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  THE  MEURTHE. 

CZtANSLATED  AND  ADAPTED  TO  THE  USE  OF  THE  RURAL  PRIMARY  SCHOOLS  OF  TUB 

UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA. 


BY  F.  G.  SKINNER. 


NEW  YORK: 

C.  M.  SAXTON, 

AGRICULTURAL  BOOK  PUBLISHER 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1848, 

By  F.  G.  SKINNER, 

in  the  Clerk’s  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States,  in  and  for 
the  Southern  District  of  New  York. 


REPORT 


MADE  TO  THE  CENTRAL  AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETY  OF  THE 
MEURTHE. 

Gentlemen: — Two  of  your  new  colleagues,  Mr.  Bentz, 
Director  of  the  Normal  Primary  School  of  the  Department  of 
the  Meurthe,  and  Mr.  Chretien,  Professor  of  Rural  Economy 
in  the  same  school  — both  honorary  members  of  the  Central 
Agricultural  Society  of  Nancy  — have  just  published  an  ele- 
mentary work  on  the  science  that  you  cultivate.  I have  been 
appointed  to  examine,  and  report  upon  this  work  — a duty  that 
I most  cheerfully  undertake.  I must,  however,  be  first  per- 
mitted to  declare,  that  with  me  it  is  a subject  of  some  delicacy, 
inasmuch  as  I have  myself  published  two  works  having  the 
same  object  in  view  with  that  of  Messrs.  Bentz  and  Chretien; 
it  shall  not,  however,  prevent  me  from  stating  candidly  the 
impression  made  upon  my  mind  by  their  publication. 

I have  read,  with  attention  and  continued  interest,  the  “Ele- 
ments of  Agriculture  for  the  Use  of  Primary  Schools.”  The 
first  observation  that  struck  me  was,  that  they  had  been  faith- 
ful to  their  title-page.  Thus,  we  find  nothing  in  their  work 
that  is  not  absolutely  elementary,  but  sufficient,  nevertheless, 
for  the  object  in  view.  The  teacher  may  with  confidence  draw 
upon  its  pages  for  all  that  seems  to  be  of  primary  necessity, 
for  himself  first,  and  then  for  the  children  or  adults  confided  to 
his  care.  Another  thing  that  we  remarked  on  opening  the  new 
work  of  our  honorable  colleagues,  is  the  insertion  at  the  end 
of  each  subdivision  of  a chapter,  of  a series  of  questions,  so 
skilfully  put,  as  to  compel  the  reader  or  scholar  to  review,  inr 
voluntarily  as  it  were,  the  subject  upon  which  his  attention 
has  for  a moment  been  directed.  This  is  a happy  idea  — an 
innovation  that  may  bear  good  fruit ; and  we  do  not  hesitate 
to  aver,  that  the  complete  absence  of  replies  seems  to  us  the 
more  judicious,  as  it  compels,  in  the  formation  of  these  replies, 
an  exercise  of  both  the  judgment  and  memory.  You  will  not 
fail  to  remark,  gentlemen,  that  there  must  inevitably  result  to 
the  pupil,  from  this  method  of  proceeding,  three  important  ad- 
vantages — the  obligation  to  read  attentively  each  lesson ; the 


2 


REPORT. 


compulsory  exercise  of  two  intellectual  faculties,  the  develop- 
ment of  which  is  in  a direct  ratio  with  the  use  that  is  made  of 
them;  and  finally,  the  habit  of  rendering  to  ourself  an  account 
of  what  is  read  — a species  of  exercise  that  leads  to  thought 
and  meditation. 

The  division  adopted  by  the  authors  seems  to  us  simple, 
proper,  and  logical.  In  the  first  part,  they  commence  by  giv- 
ing us  all  the  requisite  knowledge  of  natural  history,  and  then 
some  general  ideas  on  the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  the  physiology 
and  anatomy  of  plants,  and  finally  on  vegetable  reproduction. 
The  second  part  is  devoted  to  the  study  of  the  soil  in  general, 
and  to  that  of  its  physical  properties.  The  different  operations 
required  to  bring  the  soil  into  cultivation,  manures,  ameliora- 
tors, and  stimulants,  are  the  objects  of  the  third  part.  Under 
these  different  titles  are  arranged  the  subdivisions,  skilfully 
treated,  and  entirely  within  the  comprehension  of  the  young 
readers,  for  whom  the  book  is  destined. 

The  publication  of  the  second  volume  depends,  the  authors 
tell  us,  upon  the  reception  that  may  be  given  to  the  first. 
This  reserve,  full  of  modesty  and  good  taste,  reveals  to  the 
Society  not  only  the  value  of  its  new  colleagues,  but  the  zeal 
with  which  it  should  encourage  and  promote  their  labors. 
However,  gentlemen,  this  sympathy  and  encouragement  have 
recently  been  generously  manifested,  by  the  governmental  coun- 
cil of  our  department,  for  the  elementary  work  that  we  have 
the  honor  to  report  upon  ; the  council  having  ordered  the  ex- 
penses of  printing  the  work  to  be  defrayed  out  of  the  fund  ap- 
propriated by  government  for  the  encouragement  of  agriculture. 

If,  on  the  one  hand,  this  intelligent  vote  is  a just  and  proper 
reward  for  a useful  work,  it  will  also  enable  its  publishers  to 
furnish  it  at  a less  cost  than  they  otherwise  could.  Thus, 
gentlemen,  by  our  co-operation  with  the  general  council  of 
the  department,  we  at  once  render  an  act  of  justice  to  the 
authors,  and  make  manifest  the  interest  that  we  feel,  not  only 
in  the  teachers  and  the  scholars  of  the  country,  but  also  in 
the  success  of  primary  and  secondary  instruction  in  matters 
appertaining  to  agriculture.  C.  MANDEL. 

Report  adopted,  and  ordered  to  be  printed. 


BY  THE  TRANSLATOR, 

WITH  UNAFFECTED  RESPECT,  AND  A HIGH  SENSE  OF  THE 
TRUE  DIGNITY  OF  THEIR  PROFESSION, 

TO 

TOE  fEATOEIEi  m TOOTH 

IN 

THE  UNITED  STATES: 

The  followers  of  a pursuit  the  most  responsible  and  hon- 
orable, when  properly  understood ; and  yet,  in  propor- 
tion to  its  importance,  the  least  honored  an«>  the  worst 
paid,  of  ail  others. 


I 


PREFACE 


When  it  is  considered  that  a very  large  majority  of  the  millions 
who  are  constantly  in  training  at  our  country  schools  are  to  be  cul- 
tivators of  the  soil,  and  that  on  their  general  intelligence,  with  some 
knowledge  of  the  principles  of  their  own  profession,  must  in  a great 
measure  depend,  not  only  the  prosperity  of  American  agriculture, 
but  the  permanence  of  our  free  institutions  ; every  lover  of  his  coun- 
try must  reflect  with  regret  on  the  want  of  more  diffusive  and  per- 
fect systems  of  general  education,  and  especially  on  the  absence 
of  a plain , intelligible , elementary  work  on  the  principles  of  agricul- 
ture, for  the  use  of  our  common  schools.  This  want,  it  is  now 
confidently  believed,  has  been  supplied  by  what  is  here  offered, 
entitled  il  Elements  of  Agriculture  for  the  Use  of  Common 
Schools,”  which  has  lately  appeared  in  France,  under  the  auspices 
of  the  department  for  public  instruction,  and  been  sanctioned,  as 
will  be  seen,  by  the  strong  recommendation  of  men  of  the  highest 
distinction  and  authority  for  learning  and  benevolence. 

This  little  work  is  purely  elementary  in  its  character,  and  so 
plainly  written,  that  while  the  principles  are  brought  within  the 
comprehension  of  children  who  have  attained  tlieij*  twelfth  year,  it 
can  not  fail  to  be  entertaining  and  auxiliary,  if  not  instructive  to  their 
teachers.  If  in  itself  it  does  not  make  those  who  study  it  accom- 
plished agriculturists,  it  will  at  least  pave  the  way  for  their  becoming 
such,  by  explaining  the  rudiments  of  those  sciences  with  which  Ag- 
riculture is  naturally  connected. 

As  will  be  perceived,  by  reference  to  the  table  of  contents,  the  work 
is  divided  into  three  Parts.  The  first  treats  of  Natural  History, 
explaining,  in  a clear  and  simple  manner,  the  difference  between 
Organic  and  Inorganic  Substances,  Animal  and  Vegetable  Life, 
Vegetable  Reproduction,  &c.  The  Second  Part  treats,  in  like  per- 
spicuous and  intelligible  style,  of  Climate,  and  its  effects  upon 
animal  and  vegetable  life.  Mineral  Manures,  more  properly 
called  by  the  French  writers  ameliorators , and  Animal  and  Vege- 
table Manures,  with  their  management  and  application,  make  up 
the  Third  Part.  Finally,  it  has  been  slightly  modified,  as  was 
needed,  to  adapt  it  to  the  soil  and  climate  of  the  United  States. 


CONTENTS 


PART  FIRST. 

CHAPTER  I. 

General  Notions  on  the  Art  of  Cultivating  the  Soil,  and  of  the  dif- 
ferent Objects  that  exist  in  Nature. 


Lesson  I. — Divisions  in  the  Art  of  Cultivation * PAGE  9 

Lesson  II. — The  different  Objects  existing  in  Nature 11 

CHAPTER  n. 

Vegetable  Anatomy  and  Physiology. 

Lesson  III.— The  Organs  of  Plants 13 

Lesson  IV. — The  Root 14 

Lesson  V. — The  Stem  and  Leaves  — Functions  that  they  fulfil  in  the  Act 

of  Nutrition 16 

Lesson  VI.— The  Organs  of  Reproduction 19 

Lesson  VII. — Fruit 20 

Lesson  VIII.— Germination 21 

Moral  Reflections 24 


CHAPTER  HI. 

The  Reproduction  of  Vegetables. 

Lesson  IX. — Reproduction  by  Generation 

Lesson  X.— Reproduction  by  Propagation  — Layering. . . , 

Lesson  XI. — Multiplication  of  Plants  by  Grafting 

Lesson  XII.— Inoculating 

PART  SECOND. 

CHAPTER  I. 

General  Consideration  of  the  Soil. 


Lesson  I.— The  Causes  that  Affect  the  Value  of  the  Soil 31 

Lesson  II. — The  Mineral  Parts  of  the  Soil 33 

Lesson  III.— Silex,  or  Silica 35 


8 CONTENTS. 

Lesson  IV.— Clay *age  37 

Lesson  V. — Carbonate  of  Lime 39 

Lesson  VI.— Plaster,  Marl,  Magnesia,  Iron 41 

Lesson  VII. — The  Organic  Parts  of  the  Soil 43 

Lesson  VIII. — The  Formation  of  Humus,  and  its  Properties . 46 

Lesson  IX.— The  Action  of  Humus  in  the  Soil 48 

CHAPTER  II. 

The  Physical  Properties  of  Soil. 

Lesson  X. — Texture  and  Depth  of  the  Soil 51 

Lesson  XI.— Situation  of  the  Surface 53 

Lesson  XII.— Subsoil . 54 

Lesson  XIII.— The  Effects  of  Climate  on  Vegetation 56 

Lesson  XIV. — The  Effect  of  Climate  upon  Cultivation  and  upon  Animal 
Economy 58 

PART  THIRD. 

CHAPTER  L 
Ameliorators. 

Lesson  I. — General  Views  of  Manures,  Ameliorators,  and  Stimulants. ...  61 

Lesson  II. — Liming  Lands,  or  the  Use  of  Lime  as  an  Ameliorator 63 

Lesson  III. — Liming  Lands  (continued) 65 

Lesson  IV. — Liming  Lands  (continued) 66 

Lesson  V. — Marl  as  an  Ameliorator 69 

Lesson  VI. — Marl  as  an  Ameliorator  (continued) 71 

Lesson  VII. — Clay  and  Sand  as  Ameliorators. 73 

CHAPTER  IL 
Stimulants. 

Lesson  VIII.— Ashes 76 

Lesson  IX.— Plaster 78 

Lesson  X.— Paring  and  Burning 79 

CHAPTER  IH. 

Manures. 

Lesson  XI.— Formation,  Composition,  and  Action  of  Manures..... 81 

Lesson  XII. — Manures  (continued) 82 

Lesson  XIII. — Litter,  and  Liquid  Manures 84 

Lesson  XIV.— Management  of  Manure 85 

Lesson  XV.— Varieties  of  Manure 87 

Lesson  XVI. — Folding  Sheep— Animalized  Manures 88 

Lesson  XVII.— Vegetable  Manures 90 


PART  FIRST. 


CHAPTER  I. 

General  Notions  on  the  Art  of  cultivating  the  Soil , and 
of  the  different  Objects  that  exist  in  Nature . 


LESSON  I. 

DIVISIONS  IN  THE  ART  OF  CULTIVATION. 

1.  The  Art  of  Cultivation. — The  object  of  this  art  is 
to  obtain  from  the  earth  the  greatest  possible  quantity  of 
products  ; and  it  is  usually  divided  into  four  parts,  namely : 
1.  Agriculture,  or  the  cultivation  of  fields.  2.  Horticul- 
ture, or  the  cultivation  of  gardens.  3.  The  cultivation  of 
the  grasses.  4.  Arboriculture,  or  the  cultivation  of  trees. 

2.  Agriculture . — The  principal  aim  of  agriculture  is  to 
produce  those  plants  that  are  most  generally  used  as  food, 
by  man  and  domestic  animals  ; such  as  wheat,  Indian  com, 
rye,  barley,  oats,  as  also  potatoes,  beets,  turnips,  clover, 
lucerne,  etc.  Among  the  products  of  agriculture  are  also 
to  be  classed  what  are  called  the  industrial  plants,  such  as 
flax,  hemp,  cotton,  hops,  madder,  and  others  that  furnish 
materials  for  different  manufactures,  either  at  home  or 
abroad.  Thus  we  see  that  agriculture  is  the  chief  founda- 
tion of  a nation’s  power,  as  it  not  only  furnishes  man  with 
food  and  clothing,  but  also  with  materials  for  the  mechanic 
arts,  and  commerce 


10 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGSICt/^JiTOE. 


3.  Horticulture  has  for  its  object  the  cultivation  of 
vegetable  gardens,  and  orchards.  It  flourishes  most  in  the 
vicinity  of  cities,  as  there  it  not  only  finds  a ready  market 
for  its  products,  but  an  abundant  supply  of  manures.  It  is 
by  means  of  horticulture  that  the  greatest  quantity  possi- 
ble of  products  is  obtained  ; for  several  crops  are  usually 
taken  from  the  same  ground,  in  the  same  year. 

4.  Arboriculture  treats  of  the  planting,  growth,  and 
management  of  trees.  It  is  a branch  of  agriculture  that 
will  increase  in  importance  with  the  decrease,  now  so 
rapidly  going  on,  in  the  timber  throughout  the  country. 

5.  The  cultivation  of  the  grasses,  for  pasturage  and  hay, 
is  of  such  well-known  importance,  that  it  will  be  sepa- 
rately treated  in  this  work. 

This  work  is  specially  devoted  to  agriculture  and  rural 
economy. 

6.  A knowledge  of  the  principles  that  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  follow  in  cultivation,  is  called  the  theory  ; the  ap- 
plication of  these  principles  to  cultivation,  is  called  prac- 
tice ; and  he  who  applies  them,  is  called  an  agriculturist 
or  farmer. 

7.  In  the  theory  and  practice  together,  consists  the  art 
of  cultivation.  To  be  a good  farmer,  it  is  not  only  neces- 
sary to  possess  a knowledge  of  the  theory,  but  also  to 
know  how  to  put  it  in  practice. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  In  what  does  the  art  of  cultivation  consist  t 

2.  How  is  it  divided  ? 

3.  What  is  the  principal  object  of  agriculture  ? 

4.  What  is  theory  ? 

5.  What  is  practice  ? 

6.  What  is  a farmer  ? 

7.  Does  it  require  a knowledge  of  the  practice  and  theory  both,  to  make 
a good  farmer  1 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


11 


LESSON  II. 

THE  DIFFERENT  OBJECTS  EXISTING  IN  NATURE. 

8.  The  art  of  agriculture  requires  some  knowledge  of 
the  different  objects  that  exist  upon  the  surface,  and  in  the 
interior  of  the  earth.  It  presupposes,  consequently,  some 
acquaintance  with  natural  history,  and  principally  with 
botany,  a science  that  treats  of  plants  and  their  properties. 

9.  All  bodies  that  exist  upon  the  surface,  or  in  the  inte- 
rior of  the  earth,  are  divided  into  three  classes,  called  the 
kingdoms  of  nature,  namely:  1.  The  animal  kingdom, 
which  includes  man  and  all  animals.  2.  The  vegetable 
kingdom,  in  which  are  included  all  vegetables,  from  the 
largest  tree  to  the  smallest  plant.  3.  The  mineral  king- 
dom, to  which  belong  all  rocks,  stones,  earths,  and  metals. 

10.  Among  the  beings  that  exist,  some  are  endowed 
with  life,  such  as  men,  animals,  vegetables,  or  plants ; the 
others  are  inanimate,  or  without  life,  as  minerals,  rocks, 
earths,  etc.  The  first  are  called  organic  bodies ; the 
second,  inorganic  bodies . 

11.  The  organs  are  those  parts  of  a body  created  for  the 
maintenance  of  life. 

12.  It  is  easy  to  establish  the  distinction  that  exists  be- 
tween the  beings  of  the  three  kingdoms.  Those  that  be- 
long to  the  animal  kingdom  grow,  live,  feel,  and  are  gifted 
with  the  faculty  of  moving  themselves,  or  locomotion . 
Those  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  grow,  and  live  ; a proof 
of  this  last  property  is  the  faculty  that  they  possess  of 
nourishing  and  reproducing  themselves.  Those  of  the 
mineral  kingdom  grow  only,  and  this  growth  takes  place 
in  a manner  contrary  to  that  of  organized  bodies.  These 
last  increase  always  from  the  interior  to  the  exterior, 
whereas  minerals  increase  by  the  addition  to  their  surface 
c / 'mall  particles  that  adhere  to  them. 


12 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


13.  The  life  of  animals  and  vegetables  exhibits  a differ- 
ence worthy  of  remark ; it  is  that  vegetables  seem  to  be 
endowed  with  the  reproductive  power  in  all  their  parts. 
Thus,  when  the  limb  of  a tree  is  cut  off  and  planted  in  the 
earth,  it  may  produce  another  tree.  This  is  not  the  case 
with  animals. 

14.  Minerals,  and  other  brute  bodies,  united  in  large 
masses  in  the  bosom  of  the  earth,  form  rocks  that  are  in  a 
continual  state  of  decomposition.  The  particles  derived 
from  this  decomposition  constitute,  by  their  mixture  with 
organic  remains,  the  different  species  of  soil  that  are  culti- 
vated. In  other  words,  soils  are  composed  of  a mixture 
o f organic  and  inorganic  remains . 

, QUESTIONS. 

1.  The  art  of  agriculture  presupposes  a knowledge  of  what  ? 

2.  What  is  botany  ? 

3.  Into  how  many  kingdoms  is  nature  divided  ? 

4.  What  are  organic  and  inorganic  bodies  ? 

5.  What  are  organs  ? 

6.  How  do  we  distinguish  between  the  beings  of  the  three  kingdoms? 

7.  How  do  inorganic  bodies  increase  ? 

8.  What  remark  can  be  made  upon  animal  and  vegetable  life  ? 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE* 


13 


CHAPTER  II. 

Vegetable  Anatomy  and  Physiology • 

LESSON  III. 

THE  ORGANS  OF  PLANTS. 

15.  To  enable  the  farmer  to  obtain  the  greatest  possible 
field  from  his  land,  it  is  necessary  that  he  should  know 
dhe  different  plants  that  can  be  cultivated  to  the  best  ad- 
vantage, according  to  the  circumstances  in  which  he  finds 
himself  placed.  It  is  equally  useful  to  know  how  to  dis- 
tinguish the  hurtful  plants,  or  weeds,  that  flourish  in  his 
soil.  To  this  end,  some  notions  of  botany  are  necessary  ; 
for  it  is  this  science  (see  No.  8)  that  teaches  us  the  nature 
and  properties  of  plants.  It  is  particularly  when  we  wish 
to  study  the  nature  of  a soil,  or  introduce  a new  plant  into 
cultivation,  that  we  feel  the  importance  of  a knowledge 
of  botany.  Soils,  as  they  may  be  calcareous,  clayey,  or 
sandy,  are  more  favorable  to  the  growth  of  one  plant  than 
another ; and  it  is  by  an  examination  of  the  spontaneous 
growth,  that  we  are  enabled  to  recognise,  almost  to  a cer- 
tainty, whether  such  a grain,  or  such  a plant,  will  thrive 
in  our  soil. 

16.  Botany  is  divided  into  several  parts ; but  those  that 
it  is  the  most  important  to  examine  here,  are  the  anatomy 
and  physiology  of  plants . 

17.  Vegetable  anatomy  treats  of  the  division  of  the  or- 
gans of  plants,  and  of  their  respective  positions.  Vegeta- 
ble physiology  treats  of  the  functions  of  these  organs,  and 
teaches  how  plants  are  nourished  and  reproduced. 

18.  All  the  organs  do  not  fulfil  the  same  functions : some 
serve  for  nutrition  — that  is  to  say,  they  procure  for 

2 


14 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


the  plant  the  food  that  it  requires;  the  others  serve  for 
their  reproduction . 

19.  The  root,  the  stem , and  the  leaves , are  the  organs 
of  nutrition.  Those  of  reproduction  are  the  flowers , the 
fruits , and  the  seeds.  There  are,  however,  as  we  shall 
see,  when  we  come  to  study  each  one  of  these  organs  sep- 
arately, several  that  serve,  at  the  same  time,  for  nutrition 
and  reproduction. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  Why  is  some  acquaintance  with  botany  necessary  to  the  farmer? 

2.  What  does  vegetable  anatomy  treat  of? 

3.  What  is  the  object  of  vegetable  physiology  ? 

4.  Do  all  the  organs  fulfil  the  same  functions  ? 

5.  Which  are  the  organs  of  nutrition  ? 

6.  Which  are  the  organs  of  reproduction  ? 


LESSON  IV. 

THE  ROOT. 

20.  The  root  is  that  part  of  a plant  that  generally  intro- 
duces itself  into  the  soil,  and  there  sucks  up  a portion  of 
the  substances  necessary  to  the  nutrition  of  the  plant.  By 
penetrating  into  the  earth,  it  serves  at  the  same  time  to 
support  the  plant  in  position. 

21.  The  whole  surface  of  the  root  does  not  concur  equal- 
ly in  the  function  of  nourishing  the  plant.  Its  extremity 
is  endowed  with  a greater  power  of  suction  than  the  other 
parts.  The  mouth  that  is  supposed  to  exist  at  the  ex- 
tremity of  roots,  is  called  spongiole. 

22.  There  are  vegetables,  the  roots  of  which  do  not 
penetrate  the  earth,  but  grow  upon  other  plants.  These 
vegetables  are  called  parasites . The  mistletoe,  that  we 
see  upon  so  many  trees,  is  a plant  of  this  kind. 

23.  That  part  of  a plant  immediately  between  the  roo 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE,  15 

and  the  stem,  is  called  the  collar,  or  neck.  Beneath  the 
neck,  branch  off  the  small  roots,  or  rootlets,  that  penetrate 
the  soil  in  every  direction,  in  search  of  the  organic  or  in- 
organic substances  that  serve  as  food  to  the  plant. 

24.  With  regard  to  their  duration,  roots  may  be  divided 
into  two  classes:  1.  Annual  roots , those  that  perish 
after  having  borne  seeds,  such  as  corn,  carrots,  beets,  etc. 
2.  Perennial  roots , those  that  live  an  indefinite  number 
of  years,  as  lucerne,  for  instance.  An  annual  plant  may 
often  be  rendered  perennial  by  preventing  its  ripening  its 
seeds,  for  it  is  in  forming  and  maturing  the  seed  that  a 
plant  exhausts  itself,  and  perishes. 

25.  Boots,  as  regards  their  shape,  may  be  arranged  in 
four  principal  classes,  namely : The  tuberous,  like  pota- 
toes ; the  fibrous,  formed  of  small  threads  that  spread  at 
short  distances  into  the  soil,  like  those  of  wheat ; the  bul- 
bous, resembling  the  onion  in  shape  ; and  the  tap-rooted,  the 
most  of  which  are  fusiform,  such  as  the  beet,  carrot,  pars- 
nip, etc.  From  these  four  kinds,  all  other  varieties  seem 
to  be  derived. 

26.  Those  plants  that  are  cultivated  for  their  roots  are 
of  vast  utility,  not  only  as  food  for  man,  but  also  for  do- 
mestic animals.  The  cultivation  of  the  potato,  the  beet, 
and  the  turnip,  on  a large  scale,  has  been  of  incalculable 
value  to  the  crowded  population  of  Europe,  and  has  more 
than  once  saved  them  from  the  horrors  of  famine.  Indeed, 
the  flourishing  condition  of  the  agriculture  of  England  is 
based  almost  entirely  upon  their  growth.  It  is  to  be  de- 
sired that  the  American  farmer  should  give  them  more 
attention  ; independent  of  their  value  in  themselves,  their 
cultivation  is  the  best  preparation  that  land  can  receive  for 
any  other  succeeding  crop.  Roots  are  drilled,  worked 
with  a hoe,  the  weeds  are  destroyed,  and  the  land  ?s  left 
clean. 


16 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  ia  the  root  ? 

2.  Does  the  whole  surface  of  the  root  contribute  to  the  nourishment  of 
the  plant  ? 

3.  What  is  the  spongiole  ? 

4.  What  are  parasitical  plants 

5.  What  is  the  collar,  or  neck  * 

6.  What  is  an  annual  root  ? 

7.  What  is  a perennial  root  ? 

8.  How  may  an  annual  be  sometimes  made  perennial? 

9.  How  may  roots  be  classed  ? 

10.  Why  is  it  advisable  to  cultivate  roots  ? 


LESSON  V. 

THE  STEM  AND  LEAVES — FUNCTIONS  THAT  THEY  FULi*  * 

IN  THE  ACT  OF  NUTRITION. 

27.  That  part  of  the  plant  which,  starting  from  the  col- 
lar, springs  erect  above  the  surface  of  the  ground,  in  search 
of  light  and  air,  is  called  the  stem. 

28.  Stems  are  divided  into  several  kinds,  depending  up- 
on form  and  substance.  Those  resembling  the  stems  of 
trees,  bear  the  name  of  trunks  ; and  those  that  are  hollow 
and  jointed,  are  called  stubble , as  the  stems  of  wheat,  and 
other  cereal  plants.  There  are  plants  without  any  stems. 

29.  When  a stem  has  the  consistency  of  wood,  it  is 
called  ligneous ; when  it  is  tender,  like  grass,  it  is  called 
herbaceous . 

30.  The  parts  composing  the  stems  are  much  more  dif- 
ficult to  distinguish  in  some  plants  than  in  others.  Thus, 
in  herbaceous  plants,  they  are  not  easily  detected  ; whereas 
in  trees,  we  may  almost  always  distinguish  the  different 
parts  composing  the  stem. 

31.  The  trunk,  or  stem,  is  divided  into  the  following 
parts : 1.  A dry,  leathery,  tough  membrane,  the  cuticle . 
2.  A cellular  layer,  adhering  to  the  cuticle,  and  called  the 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


17 


cellular  integument . 3.  A vascular  layer . 4.  A whi« 

tish  layer,  apparently  of  a fibrous  texture,  the  inner  bark, 
which  is  of  a more  complicated  structure  than  the  other 
layers.  Then  the  imperfectly  formed  wood,  called  albur- 
num ; the  wood  itself ; and  finally  the  pith. 

32.  The  leaves  are  those  parts  of  the  plant  attached  to 
the  stem,  or  branches,  and  from  which  they  generally  be- 
come detached  every  year.  Some  are  united  to  the  vege- 
table by  means  of  a stem,  called  footstalk  ; and  others  are 
attached  immediately  to  the  plant,  without  any  interve- 
ning link.  Many  naturalists  suppose  that  it  is  through  the 
under  sides  of  their  leaves  that  plants  absorb  the  gases 
that  aid  in  their  nutrition. 

33.  Vegetables  procure  the  elements  of  their  subsistence 
not  only  through  their  roots,  but  also  through  their  stems 
and  leaves,  which  in  this  case  play  a very  important  part. 
They  absorb,  through  their  pores,*  the  nutritious  gases 
contained  in  the  atmosphere.  The  quantity,  more  or  less, 
of  these  principles  absorbed,  depends  upon  the  organization 
of  the  plant,  the  manner  of  its  cultivation,  and  the  state 
of  the  atmosphere. 

34.  It  is  principally  hydrogen  and  azote,  combined  in 
the  shape  of  ammonia  and  carbonic  acid,t  that  is  absorbed 

* The  minute  particles  that  compose  a body  are  called  molecules,  and  the 
interstices,  or  open  spaces  between  these  molecules,  are  called  pores.  All 
bodies  have  pores,  and  are  on  that  account  called  porous. 

t Air  is  composed  of  two  principal  bodies,  oxygen  and  azote.  The  result 
of  a combination  of  oxygen  with  a simple  body,  is  called  an  acid.  Acids  are 
easily  recognised  by  a sour  taste,  and  the  property  which  they  possess  of 
turning  vegetable  blues  to  red.  Their  names  differ  as  the  quantity  of  oxy- 
gen entering  into  their  composition  is  greater  or  less.  Thus,  when  it  exists 
in  the  greatest  proportion  possible,  we  terminate  the  name  of  the  simple 
body  in  ic  : but  if  the  quantity  of  oxygen  is  not  so  great,  the  name  of  the 
simple  body  is  terminated  in  ous  — e.  g.,  sulphuric  acid,  sulphurous  acid : nit- 
ric acid,  nitrous  acid.  When  we  burn  a match,  we  obtain  sulphurous  act'd, 
and  sulphuric  acid  is  the  liquid  substance  usually  called  oil  of  vitriol.  If  the 
body  formed  by  the  combination  of  oxygen  with  another  simple  body  does 
not  possess  the  properties  indicated  above,  it  is  called  an  oxyde.  Among  the 
2* 


18 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


by  plants,  either  through  their  roots,  stems,  or  leaves. 
This  last  gas,  that  never  enters  into  the  composition  of 
the  air  in  a greater  degree  than  a hundredth  part,  per- 
forms an  important  part  in  the  act  of  vegetable  nutrition, 
on  account  of  the  carbon  that  it  contains.  This  body  is 
found,  in  large  quantities,  in  plants  submitted  to  decompo- 
sition or  combustion. 

35.  Carbonic  acid,  formed  of  carbon  and  oxygen,  is  de- 
composed, according  to  some  naturalists,  in  the  inner  bark ; 
the  carbon  becomes  fixed  in  the  plants,  and  the  oxygen 
escapes.  This  decomposition,  however,  cannot  take  place 
unless  the  plant  is  submitted  to  the  influence  of  light ; in 
the  contrary  case,  the  carbonic  acid  is  expelled  by  the 
stems  and  the  leaves,  just  as  they  received  it. 

36.  Thus  we  are  taught  that  it  would  be  highly  impru- 
dent to  sleep  in  an  apartment  containing  many  plants. 
The  air.  vitiated  by  the  great  quantity  of  carbonic  acid  dis- 
charged by  the  plants,  might  become  exceedingly  danger- 
ous to  the  sleeper. 

oxydes,  there  are  some  that  restore  the  blue  color  that  has  been  reddened 
by  the  action  of  acids.  Their  names  differ,  according  to  their  degree  of  oxy- 
genation : thus  we  say,  protoxyde,  deutoxyde,  peroxyde  of  iron,  agreeably 
to  the  degree  of  oxygenation  of  the  metal. 

Salts  are  formed  by  the  union  of  acids  and  oxydes  ; and  they  derive  their 
names  from  their  constituent  parts.  If  the  termination  of  the  acid  is  in  tc, 
it  is  changed  into  ate  — if  in  ous,  into  He.  The  name  of  the  acid  thus  modi- 
fied is  followed  by  the  name  of  the  simple  body  that  enters  the  oxyde  to  form 
that  of  the  salt ; thus  we  will  say,  carbonate  of  lime,  or  carbonate  of  iron, 
agreeably  as  the  carbonic  acid  shall  have  united  itself  with  lime  or  iron  to 
constitute  the  salt  — sulphate  of  lime,  or  sulphite  of  lime,  as  we  may  hare 
employed  sulphuric  or  sulphurous  acid  to  form  the  combination. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  the  stem  ? 

2.  What  is  the  trunk  ! 

3.  What  is  stubble  ? 

4.  What  is  a ligneous  stem  ! 

5.  What  is  an  herbaceous  stem  T 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


19 


6.  Of  what  parts  is  the  stem  formed  ? 

7.  What  are  the  leaves  ? 

8.  What  is  the  footstalk  ? 

9.  By  what  means  do  plants  supply  themselves  with  nourishment? 

10.  Why  does  carbonic  acid  play  a great  part  in  the  act  of  nutrition  ? 

11.  Where  is  it  decomposed  ? 

12.  That  this  decomposition  shall  take  place,  what  is  necessary  ? 

13.  Why  should  we  avoid  sleeping  in  an  apartment  filled  with  plants  t 


LESSON  VI. 

THE  ORGANS  OF  REPRODUCTION. 

37.  Those  are  called  organs  of  reproduction,  by  which 
a plant  reproduces  others  of  its  kind.  The  most  essential 
are  the  stamens , or  male  organs  ; and  the  pistils , or  female 
organs. 

38.  The  pistil,  which  is  usually  found  in  the  centre  of 
the  flower,  is  fecundated  by  a species  of  dust,  called  pol- 
len, which  escapes  from  the  stamens  at  the  moment  of 
blooming.  These  essential  organs  of  reproduction  are 
detected  in  almost  any  flower  ; the  pistils  are  in  the  mid- 
dle, surrounded  by  the  stamens.  When  these  last  alone 
exist  in  a plant,  it  never  produces  seeds  ; and  so  the  result 
would  be,  were  we  to  suppress  the  upper  part  of  the  pis- 
til, which  is  destined  to  receive  the  fecundating  powder. 

39.  The  lower  part  of  the  pistil  is  called  ovule , or  germ . 
It  is  the  germ  which,  in  consequence  of  fecundation,  yields 
the  fruit.  This  last  is  nothing  more  in  botany  than  a fe- 
cundated germ,  or  ovule,  arrived  at  maturity. 

40.  There  are  some  plants  whose  flowers  contain  both 
the  pistil  and  the  stamens  ; these  are  called  hermaphro- 
dites. In  other  plants  the  pistil  is  found  on  one  flower, 
and  the  stamens  on  another,  but  upon  different  stems. 
This  occurs  sometimes,  however,  upon  the  same  stem. 
Thus  with  the  oak : flowers  with  the  pistil  grow  upon  one 


20 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


branch,  and  those  with  stamens  on  another;  but  with 
hemp,  for  instance,  these  reproductive  organs  are  upon 
different  stalks.  When  the  two  organs  are  found  upon 
the  same  stalk,  though  in  different  flowers,  they  are  called 
mon(Bcia  (one-housed  plants) ; when  upon  separate  and 
distinct  stalks,  dioecia  (two-housed  plants). 

41.  When  plants  of  the  same  family  are  cultivated  in 
the  vicinity  of  each  other,  it  frequently  happens  that 
their  produce  differs  from  the  parent  plant,  because  it  par- 
takes of  the  nature  of  both.  This  is  particularly  the  case 
with  the  cabbage  family.  We  then  say  that  hybridation 
has  taken  place.  Hybrid  plants,  in  the  vegetable  kingdom, 
are  what  mules  are  in  the  animal  kingdom. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  meant  by  organs  of  reproduction  ? 

2.  Which  are  the  most  essential  1 

3.  What  is  a pistil  ? 

4.  Where  are  the  stamens  1 

5.  What  is  the  pollen  ? 

6.  What  is  the  germ,  or  ovule  I 

7.  What  is  the  fruit  I 

8.  What  plants  are  called  hermaphrodites  ? 

9.  What  moncecia  I 

10.  Plants  called  dioecia,  what  are  they  I 

11.  What  is  the  meaning  of  hybridation  f 


LESSON  VII. 

FRUIT. 

42.  A fruit  is  divided  into  two  parts:  1.  Th e pericarp* 
2.  The  seed. 

43.  The  pericarp  is  that  part  which,  in  a pear  or  an 
apple,  is  destined  to  be  eaten.  In  the  interior  of  the  peri- 
carp exists  a cavity,  lined  with  a thin  membrane.  It  is  in 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE.  21 

this  cavity  that  the  seeds  are  found,  which  in  the  fruits 
above  mentioned  are  called  pips, 

44.  If  we  examine  the  seed  well,  we  will  find  that  it  is 
composed  of  a pellicle  enclosing  another  part,  called  the 
almond.  It  is  within  this  almond  that  we  find  the  em- 
bryo, containing  the  germ  of  the  new  plant. 

45.  When  the  seed  is  placed  in  circumstances  favorable 
to  its  development,  it  germinates,  and  gives  birth  to  the 
radicle , that  plunges  into  the  earth  to  form  the  root,  and 
the  plumicle , that  grows  upward  to  form  the  stem. 

46.  The  first  leaves  that  appear,  after  germination,  are 
called  cotyledons  ; and  if  a plant  has  but  one  of  these 
leaves,  it  is  called  a monocotyledon : if  it  has  several,  it 
is  called  a dicotyledon.  Plants  that  spring  up  without 
leaves,  are  called  acotyledons, 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  Into  how  many  parts  is  the  fruit  divided! 

2.  What  is  the  pericarp  ? 

3.  Where  is  the  seed  found  ? 

4.  What  is  the  seed  composed  of! 

5.  What  is  the  embryo  ? 

6.  What  is  the  radicle  ? 

7.  What  is  the  plumicle  ? 

8.  What  are  cotyledons  ? 

9.  What  a monocotyledon? 

10.  What  a dicotyledon  ? 

11.  What  are  acotyledons  ! 


LESSON  VIII. 

GERMINATION. 

47.  When  a seed  is  put  in  the  ground,  the  moisture 
causes  it  to  swell ; the  pellicle  that  surrounds  it  is  weak- 
ened, and  the  embryo  bursts  through.  Vegetation  then 


22 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


proceeds  in  two  opposite  directions,  forming  the  radicle 
below,  and  the  plumicle  above. 

48.  Germination,  then,  is  the  act  by  which  a seed, 
placed  in  the  soil  under  favorable  circumstances,  develops 
itself,  in  order  to  give  birth  to  a plant  of  the  same  kind  as 
that  whence  it  sprang. 

49.  That  a seed  may  develop  itself,  and  form  a vegeta- 
ble. it  is  not  only  necessary  that  it  should  be  placed  in  the 
soil,  and  that  the  soil  should  contain  the  humus  and  min- 
eral substances*  required  for  the  nutrition  of  the  plant,  but 
there  must  also  be  a concurrence  of  certain  atmospheric 
influences,  that  perform  an  important  part  in  the  phe- 
nomena of  vegetation.  These  atmospheric  influences,  or 
agents,  are  heat,  moisture,  air,  and  light. 

50.  The  success  of  germination  and  vegetation  depends 
upon  a union  of  heat  and  moisture.  Those  spots  always 
exhibit  the  finest  vegetation  in  which  we  find  these  two 
agents  united.  If,  on  the  contrary,  one  of  them  should 
preponderate  for  a sufficient  time,  the  plant  would  suffer, 
and  finally  perish.  It  is  to  establish  the  relation  between 
heat  and  moisture,  that  we  water  plants  in  dry  seasons. 
It  is  a common  practice  to  soak  seeds  before  sowing  or 
planting  them,  to  hasten  their  germination  ; but  the  utility 
of  this  practice  is  more  than  doubtful ; for  at  the  moment 
of  sowing  one  thing  or  the  other  occurs  — either  the  soil 
is  sufficiently  moist,  or  it  is  too  dry.  In  the  first  case, 
steeping  the  seed  would  be  useless ; in  the  other,  vegeta- 
tion would  suffer,  after  germination,  for  the  want  of 
moisture. 

51.  Air  is  also  indispensable  to  germination,  on  account 
of  the  combination  of  the  oxygen  which  it  contains  with 
the  superabundant  carbon  enclosed  in  the  seed.  It  is 

* When  vegetables  or  animals  die,  they  are  decomposed,  and  their  forms 
changed.  The  product  of  this  decomposition  is  called  humus.  Thus,  all 
manures  put  in  the  soil  become  humus. 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


23 


equally  useful  to  plants ; for  without  it  they  could  not 
grow.  Air,  however,  is  not  always  favorable  to  vegeta- 
tion : if  stagnant,  it  is  fatal ; if  too  brisk  (as  is  sometimes 
the  case  on  high  hills),  it  is  injurious,  as  it  causes  the 
plant  to  transpire  too  freely,  without  yielding  it  anything 
in  return.  Air,  by  its  weight,  acts  as  well  upon  vegetable 
as  upon  animal  economy.  By  its  pressure  upon  the  pores, 
it  prevents  the  escape  of  the  sap  and  blood  from  the  ves- 
sels in  which  they  are  enclosed.  Plants  perspire  most 
during  the  continued  prevalence  of  dry  winds.  On  the 
approach  of  a storm  or  gust,  the  air  is  particularly  favor- 
able to  the  development  of  plants ; for  then  it  is  warm, 
and  holds  suspended  a vast  quantity  of  vapors.  The  vi- 
cinity of  cities,  and  generally  of  those  places  where  much 
gas  is  generated  by  the  decomposition  of  organic  bodies,  is 
stimulating  to  vegetation. 

52.  Without  light,  germination  can  take  place,  but 
vegetation  can  not ; or  at  most  it  will  be  very  feeble,  and 
the  plant  will  soon  perish.  The  flavor  and  color  of  fruits 
are  due  to  the  influence  of  light  upon  the  plants  producing 
them.  A plant  deprived  of  light  will  be  pale  and  of  little 
consistence.  So,  when  we  heap  earth  upon  celery-plants, 
the  object  is  to  deprive  them  of  light,  that  they  may  bleach. 
The  outside  leaves  of  a drumhead  cabbage  are  green  ; but 
the  inner  leaves,  that  are  deprived  of  light,  are  white. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  How  does  germination  take  place  ? 

2.  What  is  germination  ? 

3.  Is  the  soil  alone  all  that  is  necessary  to  the  germination  of  plants  ? 

4.  What  is  humus  ? 

5.  Besides  the  soil,  what  other  agents  are  necessary  to  the  development 
of  plants? 

6.  What  is  necessary  to  make  the  germination  and  vegetation  perfect  ? 

7.  Why  is  air  indispensable  to  plants  ? 

8.  Is  the  air  always  favorable  to  vegetation  ? 

9.  When  and  where  does  air  stimulate  vegetation  1 

10.  Is  light  necessary  to  plants  t 


24 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


MORAL  REFLECTIONS. 

W e have  seen,  in  the  lessons  of  the  second  chapter,  the 
different  parts  of  which  a plant  is  composed  — the  root, 
stem,  leaves,  fruit,  etc.  If  we  consider  the  organization 
of  plants,  the  structure  of  their  parts,  their  astonishing  va- 
riety, from  the  most  humble  herb  to  the  majestic  tree ; if 
we  consider  their  utility,  and  the  benefits  they  confer  upon 
man  and  the  whole  animal  race,  we  will  discover  every- 
where the  most  marvellous  order,  and  the  hand  of  Infinite 
Wisdom.  W e behold  a seed  planted  in  the  earth,  put  forth 
roots,  a stem  bearing  buds,  branches,  leaves,  flowers,  and 
fruits,  in  which  are  enveloped  the  germs  of  new  plants. 
If,  of  all  the  wondrous  works  of  the  Creator,  we  were  to 
see  but  this,  it  would  be  sufficient  to  convince  us  of  his 
power  and  his  infinite  bounty.  It  is  for  us,  and  as  it  were 
without  our  concurrence,  that  nature,  or  rather  a benefi- 
cent God,  acts  upon  this  earth.  It  is  for  man  that  the 
fields,  gardens,  and  forests,  abound  in  blessings  that  would 
be  lost  did  he  not  make  use  of  them.  Let  us  not  be  insen- 
sible to  so  much  kindness ; but  let  us  render  thanks  to  Him 
who  bestows  so  much  and  such  constant  care  on  our  ex- 
istence, and  who  watches  over  our  welfare  with  such 
sleepless  solicitude. 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


25 


CHAPTER  III. 

The  Reproduction  of  Vegetables . 

LESSON  IX. 

REPRODUCTION  BY  GENERATION. 

53.  Plants  are  reproduced  by  their  seeds,  stems,  limbs, 
and  even  leaves  (as  is  the  case  with  the  cactus).  A ma- 
jority, however,  of  cultivated  vegetables  spring  from  the 
seeds.  It  is  by  this  mode  of  reproduction  that  we  preserve, 
in  most  plants,  their  vigor,  strength,  and  fructuous  powers ; 
for  it  is  well  known  that  many  vegetables,  propagated  for 
several  generations  by  means  of  their  branches,  become 
finally  barren. 

54.  When  a plant  is  perpetuated  by  means  of  its  seeds, 
as  is  the  case  with  wheat,  rye,  etc.,  we  call  it  reproduc- 
tion by  generation  ; and  we  say  that  the  reproduction  is 
by  propagation , when  it  is  any  other  part  of  the  vegetable 
than  the  seed  that  concurs  in  the  formation  of  the  new 
plant.  Thus,  it  is  by  propagation  that  the  limb  or  cut- 
ting of  a tree  produces  another  tree. 

55.  In  the  reproduction  by  generation,  we  must  above 
all  things  be  careful  in  the  selection  and  preservation  of 
the  seed.  That  they  may  unite  all  the  qualities  requisite 
to  reproduction,  it  is  indispensably  necessary  that  they 
should  be  thoroughly  ripe,  and  well  preserved.  We  should 
above  all  things  prevent  their  getting  heated,  in  which  case 
they  would  either  not  sprout  at  all,  or  produce  but  feeble 
plants.  A common  mode  of  testing  the  quality  of  seeds, 
is  to  throw  them  into  water  ; those  floating  upon  the  sur- 
face being  considered  worthless.  But  another,  a better 


26 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE 


method,  and  a more  certain  test  of  the  germinating  faculty, 
is  to  place  the  seeds  in  a saucer,  between  two  pieces  of 
cloth  saturated  with  water.  After  a time  equal  to  that 
which  seeds  usually  require  to  sprout  in  the  earth,  we 
may  judge  of  the  quality  of  those  under  trial. 

56.  Some  seeds  retain  the  germinating  faculty  a long 
time ; but  it  is  considered  safer,  particularly  in  field  cul- 
ture, to  use  fresh  seeds.  It  has  been  remarked  that  fruit 
accruing  from  old  seeds,  that  had  retained  their  germina- 
ting power,  are  better  than  those  furnished  by  new  seeds ; 
these  last  producing  more  vigorous  stems  and  leaves. 
Most  plants  come  well  from  the  seed ; some  trees  only 
thrive  best  from  another  method  of  reproduction. 

57.  It  is  often  advantageous  to  set  apart  certain  rich 
spots  of  ground  as  nurseries,  or  plant-beds,  in  which  the 
seed  is  sown.  After  the  plants  attain  the  proper  size,  they 
are  transplanted  to  where  they  are  to  remain  permanently. 
This  is  the  method  pursued  with  tobacco,  cabbages,  etc. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  In  how  many  ways  are  plants  reproduced  ? 

2.  What  is  reproduction  by  generation  ? 

3.  What  is  reproduction  by  propagation  ? 

4.  What  should  be  particularly  attended  to  in  reproduction  by  generation! 

5.  What  are  the  requisites  of  good  seed  1 

6.  How  can  seeds  be  tested  ? 

7.  What  are  the  results  obtained  from  old  and  new  seeds  ? 

8.  What  is  a nursery,  or  plant-bed  1 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


27 


LESSON  X. 

REPRODUCTION  BY  PROPAGATION — LAYERING. 

58.  There  are  four  principal  modes  of  reproduction  by 
propagation,  namely : 1.  Layering.  2.  By  cuttings.  3. 
By  grafting.  4.  By  inoculation. 

59.  Layering  consists  in  bending  down  the  branches, 
Jimbs,  or  suckers,  without  separating  them  from  the  parent 
plant,  and  covering  them  with  soil ; their  extreme  ends 
only  being  left  out.  Thus  buried,  they  will  generally 
soon  strike  root ; some  particular  trees,  however,  with  ex- 
treme difficulty.  Such  must  be  tongued  — an  operation 
which  consists  in  cutting  the  layer  half  off,  and  splitting  it  up 
an  inch  or  more ; the  cleft  to  be  kept  open  by  a small  wedge, 
and  buried  beneath  the  surface.  This  operation  should  be 
performed  in  spring ; and  the  plant,  when  well  rooted,  may 
be  separated  in  the  autumn  or  spring  following. 

60.  By  cuttings.  There  are  many  plants  that  may  be 
raised  from  cuttings.  For  trees,  cuttings  should  generally 
be  from  eight  inches  to  a foot  in  length,  cut  off  at  the  bot- 
tom, close  below  an  eye,  and  planted  in  a humid  soil,  two 
thirds  of  their  length  beneath  the  surface,  and  the  ground 
trodden  hard.  With  some  particular  kinds,  however,  it 
is  necessary  to  square  the  bottom  of  the  cutting,  and  press 
it  hard  down  on  the  bottom  of  a pot.  Other  kinds  must 
be  planted  in  pure  sand,  and  protected  from  the  sun  till 
rooted.  They  require  artificial  heat  in  the  soil,  and  a con- 
fined atmosphere,  which  moderates  their  transpiration. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  How  many  modes  are  there  of  reproduction  by  propagation  T 

2.  What  are  layers  ? 

3.  When  a layer  takes  with  difficulty,  what  is  done  ? 

4.  When  should  layers  be  made,  and  when  cut  off? 

5.  How  should  cuttings  be  prepared  and  planted  ? 

6.  What  is  the  treatment  of  those  cuttings  that  do  not  take  readily  ? 


28 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE.' 


LESSON  XI. 

MULTIPLICATION  OF  PLANTS  BY  GRAFTING. 

61.  Grafting  consists  in  placing  a branch  or  twig  of 
one  vegetable  upon  another,  in  a way  to  cause  the  branch 
or  twig  to  produce  a new  plant,  with  more  valuable 
products. 

62.  The  plant  grafted  upon  is  called  the  stock;  the 
plant  grafted,  the  scion . Grafting  is  particularly  useful  to 
perpetuate  certain  vegetables,  that  are  by  nature  endowed 
with  peculiar  properties,  that  would  be  lost  were  the  plant 
continued  by  means  of  the  seed. 

63.  Professor  Thouin  has  described  forty  modes  of  graft- 
ing: we  will  describe  here  three  — cl  eft- grafting,  graft - 
ingby  approach , and  root-grafting. 

64.  Cleft-Grafting. — This  mode  of  grafting  is  usually 
practised  on  stocks  of  from  one  to  two  inches  in  diameter. 
It  is  thus  performed : The  head  of  the  stock  is  carefully 
sawed  or  cut  off,  at  a part  free  from  knots,  and  the  top 
pared  smooth.  With  a thin  knife,  split  down  the  stock 
through  the  centre,  to  the  depth  of  about  two  inches ; in- 
sert a wedge  to  keep  it  open  for  the  reception  of  the  scion. 
The  scion  is  to  be  prepared  in  the  form  of  a wedge,  with 
an  eye,  if  possible,  in  the  upper  part  of  the  portion  thus 
formed.  Perfect  success  is  the  more  certain  when  this  is 
the  case.  The  scion  is  now  carefully  inserted,  so  that  the 
inner  bark  of  the  scion  and  the  inner  bark  of  the  stock  may 
both  exactly  meet.  In  large  stocks,  sometimes  four  scions 
are  inserted.  The  whole  is  now  to  be  carefully  covered 
with  the  grafting  clay,  except  two  or  three  eyes  of  each 
scion. 

65.  Grafting  by  Approach. — This  is  often  resorted  to 
with  plants  that  succeed  with  difficulty  by  other  modes. 
The  limb  or  limbs  of  each  plant,  which  are  to  be  thus 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


29 


united,  must  be  prepared  with  a long,  sloping  cut,  of  seve- 
ral inches,  nearly  to  the  centre  ; and  the  part  of  each  plant 
thus  prepared  are  to  be  brought  together  and  firmly  se- 
cured by  a bandage,  so  that  the  bark  shall  exactly  meet  on 
at  least  one  side  ; they  are  then  covered,  at  the  junction, 
with  clay  or  composition.  When  a complete  union  has 
taken  place,  the  trees  are  separated  with  a knife,  by  cut- 
ting off  the  scion  below  the  junction,  and  cutting  off  the 
stock  above . 

66.  Root-Grafting. — This  operation  is  often  performed 
on  grape-vines,  just  below  the  surface  of  the  earth,  by  the 
usual  mode  of  cleft-grafting.  It  is  also  performed  on  por- 
tions or  pieces  of  root,  where  suitable  stocks  are  scarce. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  meant  by  grafting  1 

2.  How  is  the  plant  grafted  upon  called  ? 

3.  What  is  the  scion  ? 

4.  Why  is  grafting  particularly  useful  ? 

5.  How  many  modes  of  grafting  are  there  * 

6.  Describe  cleft-grafting. 

7.  How  is  grafting  by  approach  performed  ? 

8.  Describe  root-grafting. 


LESSON  XII. 

INOCULATING. 

67.  Inoculating  is  the  operation  of  transferring  any 
desirable  variety  of  tree  upon  the  stock  of  an  inferior  va- 
riety. The  operation  is  principally  practised  on  small 
trees,  and  only  during  the  time  when  the  sap  flows  freely, 
and  chiefly  during  the  months  of  August  and  September. 

68.  Select  for  the  buds  the  ripest  young  twigs  of  the 
year,  and  cut  off  the  leaves,  leaving  the  footstalk  entire. 
Having  selected  a smooth  place  in  the  stock,  make  a per- 


30 


ELEMENTS  OR  AGRICULTURE. 


pendicular  slit  downward,  quite  through  the  bark,  an  inch 
or  a little  more  in  length.  Make  a cross  cut  at  the  top  of 
this  slit,  quite  through  to  the  wood,  a little  slanting  down- 
ward. Next  raise  the  bark  on  each  side  of  the  slit,  from 
top  to  bottom,  taking  care  not  to  injure  the  sap-wood. 
Proceed  then  quickly  to  take  off  a bud.  This  is  done  by 
entering  the  knife  about  half  an  inch  below  the  bud,  quite 
through  the  bark,  and  separating  the  bark  from  the  wood, 
to  the  same  distance  above  the  eye  ; always  leaving  a very 
thin  slip  of  wood,  about  one  third  the  length  of  the  bud. 
This  thin  slip  of  wood  occupies  the  middle  section  of  its 
length.  The  bud  is  to  be  immediately  inserted  in  the  stock 
to  the  bottom  of  the  slit,  and  between  the  bark  and  the 
wood ; the  top  of  the  bud  being  squared  even  with  the 
cross  cut,  every  part,  except  the  eye,  is  firmly  bound,  and 
covered  with  baize  matting. 

69.  When  the  season  is  far  advanced,  and  the  sap  flows 
less  freely,  it  is  best  to  take  out  the  whole  of  the  wood, 
leaving  always  the  root  of  the  bud.  The  string  is  usually 
taken  off  in  about  ten  days.  In  the  succeeding  spring, 
when  the  frost  is  out  of  the  ground,  and  the  buds  begin  to 
swell,  cut  off  the  stock,  about  a quarter  of  an  inch  above 
the  bud,  sloping  downward  on  the  opposite  side. 

questions. 

1.  What  is  inoculation  1 

2.  On  what  is  it  usually  practised,  and  when  ? 

3.  How  is  the  operation  performed  ? 

4.  When  is  it  best  to  take  all  the  wood  from  the  bud  ? 

5.  When  is  the  string  to  be  taken  off? 

6.  When  and  how  is  the  stock  to  be  cut  off? 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


31 


PART  SECOND. 


CHAPTER  I. 

LESSON  I. 

GENERAL  fcOirSjcDERATIONS  OF  THE  SOIL,  AND  THE  CAUSES 
THAT  AFFECT  ITS  VALUE. 

1.  That  portion  of  the  earth  turned  up  by  the  plough, 
and  in  which  plants  are  developed,  is  called  the  soil . 

2.  That  portion  of  the  earth  which  is  not  cultivated,  and 
which  lies  immediately  beneath  the  soil,  is  called  the  su £- 
soil.  In  certain  cases,  it  is  advantageous  to  bring  a por- 
tion of  the  sub-soil  to  the  surface,  which  is  effected  by 
deeper  ploughing  or  digging  than  usual ; the  depth  of  the 
soil  is  increased,  and  by  this  means  better  crops  are  ob- 
tained. We  will  see  presently,  however,  that  there  are 
circumstances  in  which  the  soil  would  not  be  at  all  bene- 
fited by  this  course. 

3.  The  soil  is  formed  of  two  kinds  of  principles : some 
are  of  vegetable  and  animal  origin,  the  others  are  of  mine- 
ral origin.  These  last  form  the  earth  properly  so  called, 
and  constitute  the  activity  of  the  soil ; the  first  its  richness. 

4.  That  a soil  may  yield  abundant  crops,  it  is  necessary 
that  its  activity  should  be  in  proportion  to  its  richness ; 
but  it  is  generally  the  first  quality  that  predominates,  in 
which  case  the  yield  is  but  little. 

5.  From  what  precedes,  we  must  see  that  almost  all 
mils  must  differ  in  value ; for  it  is  rare  to  find  two  pre- 
cisely alike  as  regards  composition.  In  some  (and  it  is 


32 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


the  smallest  number),  the  richness  (organic  remains)  is  in 
excess,  though  in  very  variable  proportions.  In  others 
there  is  an  excess  of  mineralogical  principles.  In  either 
case  the  cultivator  is  the  loser ; for  in  the  first  soils,  most 
crops  would  lodge, # and  on  the  second  the  vegetation 
would  be  thin  and  meager. 

6.  We  must  not  conclude  that  the  nature  of  the  soil  and 
the  proportion  of  its  constituent  elements  alone  influence 
its  value.  Without  doubt,  these  causes  contribute  much  ; 
but  there  are  many  other  circumstances,  such  as  the  expo- 
sure and  depth  of  the  soil,  and  the  natiir©  of  the  sub-soil, 
that  in  a greater  or  less  degree  affeot  the  value  of  land. 
Thus,  a lot  in  which  the  soil  is  not  more  than  four  inches 
deep,  is  not  near  so  valuable  as  one  in  which  it  is  a foot 
deep,  though  the  soil  is  precisely  alike  in  each.  The 
value  of  land  may  also  be  affected  by  the  nature  of  the 
sub-soil,  for  if  it  be  impervious  to  water,  the  plants  may 
suffer  from  too  much  wet ; if  too  porous,  they  may  suffer 
in  seasons  of  drought ; and  finally  the  sub-soil  may  contain 
mineral  principles  inimical  to  vegetation. 

7.  It  results  from  what  we  have  just  said,  that  the  clas- 
sification of  soils  can  not  depend  upon  the  relative  propor- 
tions of  the  elements  of  which  they  are  constituted,  not- 
withstanding the  contrary  opinion,  emitted  by  some  emi- 
nent writers.  It  is  only  by  the  cultivation  of  a farm,  by 
a close  examination  of  its  condition  in  all  seasons,  wet  and 
dry,  and  by  the  consideration  of  other  circumstances  that 
we  shall  indicate  hereafter,  that  we  can  form  an  estimate 
approximating  its  real  value. 

* When  the  growth  of  grain  is  too  highly  stimulated  by  manure,  or  any 
other  agent,  the  stems  do  not  acquire  sufficient  consistence  or  strength  to 
maintain  an  erect  position ; they  fall  down,  and  this  is  called  lodging. 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


33 


QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  Is  the  soil ! 

2.  What  is  the  sub-soil  ? 

3.  May  the  depth  of  the  soil  be  increased  ? 

4.  Into  how  many  classes  do  we  divide  the  constituents  of  the  soil  I 

5.  That  a soil  may  be  fertile,  what  is  necessary  ? 

6.  What  is  the  defect  in  too  rich  a soil  ? 

7.  How  is  the  vegetation  in  a poor  soil  ? 

8.  What  are  the  qualities  to  the  value  of  a soil  1 

9.  Can  a soil  be  classed  according  to  the  relative  proportion  of  its  constit- 
uent parts  ? 

10  Which  is  the  best  way  to  determine  the  value  of  a farm  T 


LESSON  II. 

THE  MINERAL  PARTS  OF  THE  SOIL. 

8.  As  we  have  before  said,  the  soil  is  composed  of  some 
substances  of  mineral  and  others  of  vegetable  and  animal 
origin.  These  last  accrue  from  the  organic  remains  of  the 
vegetable  and  animal  kingdoms,  and  are  decomposed  upon 
and  under  the  surface  of  the  earth,  or  have  been  thrown 
upon  the  fields  by  the  cultivator.  That  they  may  produce 
a proper  effect,  it  is  necessary  that  they  should  be  mixed 
with  mineral  substances  ; for  alone  they  would  be  injurious 
to  plants,  as  they  would  render  vegetation  too  active. 

9.  Among  the  mineral  substances  that  enter  into  the 
composition  of  soils,  and  those  that  are  the  most  frequently 
found,  and  in  the  greatest  quantity,  are,  silex , or  silicious 
sand  ; alumine  ; and  the  carbonate  of  lime,* 

10.  The  other  bodies  that  also  enter  into  the  composi- 
tion of  the  soil,  but  less  frequently  and  in  less  quantity, 
are,  sulphate  of  lime,f  or  plaster  ; carbonate  of  magnesia  ; 

* Carbonate  of  lime  is  formed  by  the  union  of  carbonic  acid  with  oxyde 
of  calcium,  or  with  lime.  All  bodies  thus  formed  by  the  union  of  an  acid 
and  an  oxyde,  take,  a * we  have  said  before,  the  name  of  a salt, 
t A salt  formed  by  the  union  of  sulphuric  acid  and  lime. 


34 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


oxyde  of  iron ; and  oxyde  of  manganese.  These  last  two 
are  the  only  mineral  parts  that  give  color  to  the  soil. 

11.  If  the  whole  of  the  soil  was  formed  of  one  of  these 
elements,  it  would  be  completely  barren  ; it  could  only  be 
rendered  fit  for  cultivation  by  mixing  with  it  a sufficient 
quantity  of  earth. 

12.  Soils  that  contain  much  silex  are  called  light,  or 
sandy  ; those,  on  the  contrary,  that  contain  much  clay,* 
are  called  strong,  stiff,  or  clayey. 

13.  A clayey  is  much  more  compact  and  tenacious  than 
a sandy  soil.  It  is  almost  always  very  difficult  to  work  ; 
whereas  a light  soil  is  easily  worked,  at  all  times. 

14.  The  different  soils,  then,  may  be  divided  inta  three 
classes,  as  regards  their  tenacity,  or  the  difficulty  of  work- 
ing them,  and  their  fitness  for  one  vegetable  rather  than 
another : 1.  Silicious,  or  light  land.  2.  Loamy  land,  or 
that  which  is  brought  to  a medium  consistence,  either  by 
amendments,  by  manures,  or  even  by  cultivation.  3.  Stiff, 
or  clayey  lands.  There  are,  however,  several  other  divis- 
ions admitted,  depending  upon  the  nature  and  quantity 
of  the  constituent  elements  of  the  soil.  Thus  those  are 
called  calcareous  soils,  which  contain  carbonate  of  lime ; 
peaty  soils  are  those  which  contain  peat ; ferruginous  or 
ocherous  soils,  those  which  contain  iron  or  ochre ; and 
finally  those  are  called  alluvions,  that  are  formed  by  the 
deposites  of  streams  and  rivers,  — and  these  are  usually  the 
Dest  for  cultivation. 

15.  If  it  is  useful  to  be  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the 
properties  of  the  constituent  elements  of  a soil,  it  is  less 
with  a view  to  appreciate  the  value  of  the  land,  than 
to  ascertain  what  amelioratorsf  should  be  employed  in  its 
improvement. 

* Clay  is  a combination  of  alumine  and  silex. 

t We  designate  as  ameliorators  those  substances  which,  placed  in  the  soil, 
change  its  nature,  by  rendering  it  more  friable,  or  more  compact.  Thus, 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


35 


QUESTIONS, 

1.  Whence  come  the  organic  substances  found  in  the  soil  ? 

2.  What  mineral  elements  are  found  in  the  earth  in  the  greatest  quantity  1 

3.  Which  are  those  more  rarely  found  ? 

4.  In  which  case  is  the  soil  entirely  barren! 

5.  What  is  a light  soil  ? 

6.  What  is  a stiff  soil  ? 

7.  Which  are  the  most  difficult  lands  to  cultivate  ? 

8.  Into  how  many  classes  may  soils  be  divided  ? 

9.  What  is  understood  by  calcareous  soils  ? 

10.  What  by  loamy  land  ? 

11.  Which  is  the  best  to  cultivate  ? 

12.  Why  is  it  particularly  useful  to  be  familiar  with  the  properties  of  the 
constituents  of  a soil ! 


LESSON  III. 

SILEX,  OR  SILICA. 

16.  Silex,  or  silicious  sand,  is  composed  of  two  ele~ 
ments  — oxygen,  and  a metai  called  silicium.  This  metal 
is  found  in  the  common  flint,  in  almost  a pure  state.  It  is 
not  soluble  in  water,  and  can  only  be  decomposed  by  fluo- 
ric, or  phosphoric  acid.  An  earth  is  recognised  to  be  sili- 
cious when,  mixed  with  water,  it  will  not  work  into  a 
paste. 

17.  Silica  is  very  generally  diffused  throughout  the 
earth.  It  is  met  with,  in  greater  or  less  quantities,  in  al- 
most all  soils ; and  when  not  in  excess,  so  far  from  being 
injurious,  it  is  beneficial  to  the  soil,  by  rendering  it  lighter, 
easier  to  work,  and  more  favorable  to  vegetation. 

18.  But  when  sand  predominates  in  a soil,  it  communi- 
cates defects  that  diminish  its  value.  Crops  upon  it  are 
exposed  to  suffer  from  drought,  because  silica  does  not 

lime  is  an  ameliorator,  by  the  property  which  it  possesses  of  rendering  stiff 
lands  of  easier  cultivation,  and  giving  more  compactness  to  lands  that  are 
too  light. 


36 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


combine  with  water ; and  the  least  heat  causes  it  to  losf 
the  little  moisture  that  it  might  possess. 

19.  Sandy  lands  do  not  easily  combine  with  manures., 
the  soluble  parts  of  which  are  either  carried  off  by  rains, 
or  filtrate  through  the  sub-soil.  This  renders  it  necessary 
to  put  on  weak  manures,  and  renew  them  frequently. 

20.  Sandy  lands,  being  very  friable,  do  not  require  much 
work ; for  we  would  thereby  increase  a porosity  already 
too  great,  and  render  the  roots  of  the  plants  cultivated  in 
them  liable  to  exposure.  To  avoid  this  difficulty,  these 
lands  are  often  left  in  pasture  for  several  years  ; sometimes 
they  are  rolled,  after  being  sown,  to  render  them  more 
compact ; or  sheep  are  penned  upon  them.  In  the  latter 
case,  the  soil  is  improved  in  two  ways ; by  the  tramping 
of  the  sheep,  and  by  their  droppings.  Sandy  lands  possess 
the  advantage  of  clayey  lands,  in  being  at  all  times  in  a 
condition  to  work  without  injury. 

21.  Sandy  and  gravelly  soils  differ  in  value,  agreeably 
to  the  state  of  the  silica,  and  the  proportion  in  which  it  is 
combined  with  other  elements.  When  they  are  composed 
of  coarse  sand  and  pure  gravel,  they  are  of  little  or  no 
value  ; for  they  will  yield  but  poor  crops,  even  with  a great 
outlay  in  manure.  Some  writers  have  advised  these  lands 
to  be  converted  into  meadow;  but  this  can  only  be  done 
(if  then  at  a profit)  where  they  can  be  easily  irrigated ; 
for  without  the  necessary  moisture,  most  of  the  natural 
meadow-grasses  would  speedily  perish,  in  seasons  of 
drought. 

22.  Of  the  cereals,  rye  is  almost  the  only  grain  that  suc- 
ceeds well  in  sandy  lands  ; wheat,  and  even  barley,  do  not 
thrive  on  them.  But  Indian  corn,  buckwheat,  and  root 
crops,  with  plenty  of  manure,  will  do  very  well.  Crops 
ripen  earlier  in  these  soils ; but  their  early1  maturity  is 
sometimes  at  the  expense  of  their  quality.  Root  crops 
grown  upon  them,  if  not  so  heavy,  are  more  nutritious 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE.  37 

than  those  grown  upon  stiff  lands,  because  they  are  less 
watery. 

23.  Silica  is  found  in  the  ashes  of  almost  all  vegetables, 
but  principally  in  those  of  the  cereals.  This  is  why  it 
has  been  supposed  that  it  concurs  in  the  nutrition  of  plants, 
although  from  its  nature  it  does  not  seem  fit  for  this  func- 
tion. In  all  cases,  its  principal  function  is  to  act  mechan- 
ically upon  the  soil. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  Of  what  is  silica  composed? 

2.  How  is  a silicious  soil  recognised  ? 

3.  Is  it  widely  diffused  throughout  the  earth  ? 

4.  Is  it  always  injurious  to  land  ? 

5.  To  what  are  crops  growing  in  sandy  land  exposed  ? 

6.  How  does  it  combine  with  manures  ? 

7.  Does  sandy  land  require  much  work  ? 

8.  What  is  done  to  prevent  the  roots  from  being  exposed? 

9.  Under  what  circumstances  ought  sandy  lands  to  be  converted  into 
meadows  ? 

10.  What  cereals  can  be  cultivated  on  them  1 

11.  What  crops  thrive  best  on  them  ? 

12.  In  what  bodies  i3  silica  found  ? 


LESSON  IV. 

CLAY. 

24.  Clay  is  composed  of  silica  and  another  body  called 
alumine,  or  alumina . This  last,  when  obtained  in  a pure 
state,  is  a powder  of  a whitish  color  ; it  is  distinguished 
by  the  facility  with  which  it  absorbs  water. 

25.  Land  in  which  clay  predominates  is  not  everywhere 
of  the  same  color.  It  is  often  of  a reddish  hue ; this  is 
owing  to  the  oxyde  of  iron  it  contains.  If  it  contains  a 
large  proportion  of  humus,  it  becomes  black,  and  loses  its 
color  by  calcination. 

26.  Clayey  soils  have,  as  their  distinguishing  character 

4 


38 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


the  adhesiveness  of  their  parts  (due  to  the  plastic  property 
of  the  alumine  they  contain) ; and  this  property  alone  will 
enable  even  the  inexperienced  to  discriminate  them.  A 
stiff  clay  when  dried,  by  either  natural  or  artificial  heat, 
becomes  so  hard  as  to  resist  a considerable  mechanical 
pressure.  This  property  makes  it  valuable  for  the  manu- 
facture of  bricks,  tiles,  pottery,  etc. 

27.  On  account  of  the  tenacity  of  such  soils,  they  are 
tilled  with  more  difficulty  than  the  freer  soils.  They  re- 
quire to  fertilize  them  a larger  proportion  of  manures ; but 
they  retain  the  effects  of  these  manures  a longer  time. 
They  are  better  suited  to  the  cultivation  of  plants  with 
fibrous  than  with  fleshy  roots,  or  tubers. 

28.  Soils  of  this  class,  as  of  every  other,  possess  many 
degrees  of  natural  fertility.  The  poor  clays  form,  for  the 
most  part,  an  unprofitable  soil ; because,  while  their  powers 
of  production  are  inconsiderable,  the  expenses  of  tilling 
them  are  large.  The  clay  soils  of  this  character  are  gene- 
rally of  little  depth,  and  rest  upon  a retentive  subsoil. 
The  natural  herbage  they  produce  is  coarse,  and  not  very 
nutritious ; and  they  are  not  well  suited  to  the  cultivated 
grasses,  and  other  herbage  plants.  They  are  little  fitted 
for  the  growth  of  turnips,  or  other  plants  with  fleshy  roots 
or  tubers.  Such  soils  have  everywhere  local  names,  which 
sufficiently  denote  their  qualities  ; and  they  are  termed,  by 
not  an  improper  figure,  cold  soils . 

29.  Very  different  in  their  value  and  nature  are  the 
richer  clays.  These  bear  weighty  crops  of  aJl  the  culti- 
vated kinds  of  small  grain  ; they  do  not  excel  the  better 
soils  of  other  classes  so  greatly  in  the  production  of  corn, 
and  still  less  in  that  of  barley,  in  which  the  lighter  loams 
may  surpass  them.  But  they  are  unequalled  in  the  pro- 
duction of  wheat,  and  in  many  places  derive  their  de- 
scriptive appellation  from  that  circumstance,  being  termed 
wheat  soils.  They  will  yield  large  returns  of  the  culti- 


elements  of  agriculture. 


39 


vated  grasses  and  leguminous  herbage  plants,  though  they 
are  not  so  quickly  covered  with  the  natural  herbage  plants 
of  the  soil,  when  laid  down  to  perennial  pasturage,  as  the 
lighter  soils. 

30.  Clays,  like  other  soils,  approach  to  their  most  per- 
fect condition  as  they  advance  to  that  state  which  has  been 
termed  loam.  The  effect  of  judicious  tillage,  and  of  the 
application  of  manures,  is  to  improve  the  texture  of  such 
soils,  as  well  as  to  enrich  them.  Thus,  clays  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  cities  become  dark  in  their  color,  and  less  cohe- 
sive in  their  texture,  from  the  mixture  of  animal  and  vege- 
table matter ; and  thence  acquire  the  properties  of  the 
most  valued  soils  of  their  class. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  the  composition  of  clay  ? 

2.  What  is  alumine  ? 

3.  Why  are  clay  soils  sometimes  red  1 

4.  What  is  their  distinguishing  character  ? 

5.  What  manufacture  is  clay  valuable  for,  and  why  ? 

6.  Are  they  as  easily  worked  as  other  soils  ? 

7.  What  is  said  about  the  application  of  manures  to  clays  ? 

8.  What  class  of  plants  succeed  best  in  them  1 

9.  Why  are  they  unprofitable  to  cultivate  ? 

10.  They  are  unfitted  for  the  growth  of  what  plants  ? 

11.  Clay  soils  are  uneqiialled,  when  of  fine  quality,  for  the  production  of 
what? 

12.  They  yield  large  returns  of  what  ? 

13.  What  is  the  effect  of  manures  and  judicious  tillage  upon  their  texture  ? 

14.  What  is  the  effect  of  animal  and  vegetable  manures  upon  their  color  ? 


LESSON  V. 

CARBONATE  OF  LIME., 

31.  As  we  have  indicated  (No.  9),  carbonate  of  lime  is 
formed  by  carbonic  acid  and  lime.  Carbonic  acid  is  a gas 
heavier  than  air ; large  quantities  of  it  are  thrown  off  by 
burning  charcoal. 


40 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


32.  All  earths  that  contain  carbonate  of  lime  are  calca- 
reous, and  an  excess  is  injurious,  as  the  plants  would  fire. 
On  the  contrary,  if  the  carbonate  of  lime  is  in  suitable  pro- 
portion, it  is  advantageous  to  the  soil,  and  renders  it  better 
for  cultivation. 

33.  Chalk,  marble,  limestone,  shells,  are  calcareous. 
When  exposed  to  the  action  of  heat,  the  carbonic  acid  es- 
capes, and  they  are  converted  into  lime.  Some  of  these 
substances,  that  become  friable  from  the  effects  of  frost, 
may  improve  the  soil  by  increasing  its  depth. 

34.  Carbonate  of  lime  is  found  almost  pure  in  marble, 
but  in  other  bodies  it  is  often  united  with  foreign  sub- 
stances. It  can  only  be  effective  in  the  soil  when  reduced 
and  pulverized  by  the  action  of  heat.  If  it  remained  in 
its  primitive  state  of  stone,  it  would  be  more  injurious 
than  beneficial  — impeding  the  plough,  breaking  imple- 
ments, occasioning  loss  of  time,  and  extensive  repairs. 
This  applies,  however,  to  large  stones  only  ; for  if  they 
are  very  small  they  improve  clay  lands,  by  rendering  them 
less  tenacious. 

35.  We  know  that  lands  containing  clay  in  large  quan- 
tities, are  very  compact,  and  difficult  to  cultivate.  Car- 
bonate of  lime,  reduced  to  an  earthy  texture,  serves  to 
loosen  and  render  them  more  permeable  to  air,  and  to  give 
them,  consequently,  properties  favorable  to  vegetation. 

36.  There  are  also  soils  containing  organic  remains, 
that  decompose  with  great  difficulty,  and  from  which, 
consequently,  cultivated  vegetables  can  derive  but  little 
benefit.  Thus,  with  soils  that  have  been  a long  time  in 
fallow,  and  are  clothed  with  fern,  sedge,  rushes,  etc.,  if  we 
content  ourselves  with  merely  turning  them  under,  without 
the  application  of  such  substances  as  lime  to  favor  their 
decomposition,  a long  time  may  elapse  before  the  vegeta- 
tion, so  turned  under,  will  produce  the  desired  effect. 

37.  Sometimes  even  the  substances  contained  in  a soil 


41 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

are  totally  inert,  and  would  so  remain  for  centuries,  with- 
out encouraging  vegetation.  Carbonate  of  lime  possesses 
the  property  of  decomposing  all  these  remains,  and  of  ren- 
dering them  fit  to  serve  the  nutrition  of  plants.  It  also 
destroys  the  acidity  of  certain  soils.  We  shall,  however, 
have  occasion  to  recur  to  the  effect  of  mineral  manures. 

38.  Certain  plants  seem  to  prefer  calcareous  to  all  other 
soils,  as  sainfoin  and  lucerne,  both  forage  plants.  The  fa- 
mous vineyards  of  Champagne  are  on  a soil  eminently  cal- 
careous. 

39.  Potatoes,  turnips,  beets,  cabbages,  Jerusalem  arti- 
chokes, grow  finely  in  calcareous  soils ; as  do  peas,  corn, 
barley,  tobacco,  etc. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  the  composition  of  carbonate  of  lime  T 

2.  What  is  understood  by  calcareous  earth  ? 

3.  What  is  the  effect  of  too  much  carbonate  of  lime  T 

4.  What  the  effect  when  it  exists  in  the  right  proportion  T 

5.  What  are  the  calcareous  substances  most  commonly  met  with  ? 

6.  What  occurs  when  carbonate  of  lime  is  exposed  to  the  action  of  heat? 

7.  What  is  the  effect  of  calcareous  substances  upon  the  soil  when  they 
are  rendered  friable  by  frost  ? 

8.  In  what  state  must  the  carbonate  of  lime  be  to  produce  the  proper 
effect  ? 

9.  What  is  the  effect  of  carbonate  of  lime  on  clay  soils  ? 

10.  On  soils  containing  organic  remains  of  difficult  decomposition? 

11.  On  acid  soils  ? 

12.  What  plants  prefer  calcareous  soil  1 


LESSON  VI. 

PLASTER,  MARL,  MAGNESIA,  IRON. 

40.  Among  the  mineral  substances  that  enter  into  the 
composition  of  soils,  there  are  some  of  more  rare  occur- 
rence, and  in  smaller  quantity,  than  silica  and  clay, 
4* 


42 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


These  are  plaster,  marl,  magnesia,  iron,  and  manga- 
nese.* 

41.  Plaster,  or  gypsum, f is  of  importance  not  only  as  a 
constituent  part  of  certain  soils,  but  also  on  account  of  the 
effect  that  it  produces  upon  certain  plants,  to  the  growth 
of  which  it  is  particularly  favorable.  It  is  diffused  through- 
out nature  to  some  extent,  and  in  some  localities  it  is  quar- 
ried in  large  quantities.  After  being  pulverized,  it  is  used 
either  in  building,  or  as  an  agent  of  vegetation.  There  is 
this  difference  between  carbonate  and  sulphate  of  lime: 
when  exposed  to  heat,  the  first  loses  its  acid  ; whereas  the 
second,  as  it  never  separates  from  its  sulphuric  acid,  ever 
remains  in  the  state  of  a salt. 

42.  Marls  are  found  in  many  soils,  and  sometimes  in 
such  quantities  as  to  make  them  unfruitful.  They  are  of 
different  colors  — white,  gray,  blue,  etc.  Their  elements 
are  generally  clay  and  carbonate  of  lime,  often  mixed  with 
silica,  or  shells  that  also  contain  carbonate  of  lime.  Marl 
is  said  to  be  more  or  less  rich  as  it  contains  more  or  less 
carbonate  of  lime. 

43.  Marls,  as  we  shall  see  hereafter,  are  very  useful  in 
the  amelioration  of  lands.  They  are  distinguished  from 
other  earths  by  the  effervescence  produced  when  they  are 
brought  in  contact  with  acids.  This  property  is  common 
to  all  substances  containing  calcareous  principles. 

44.  Magnesia,  which  in  a pure  state  is  a white,  insolu- 
ble substance,  is  generally  found  in  the  soil  in  the  state  of 
a carbonate  — that  is  to  say,  united  with  carbonic  acid. 
Some  writers  pretend  that  this  body,  if  employed  without 
being  calcined,  is  injurious  to  vegetation ; but  this  is  not 

* This  last,  as  well  as  some  other  earthy  bodies,  are  met  with  so  rarely, 
and  in  such  inconsiderable  quantities,  that  we  will  make  no  further  allusion 
to  them. 

t Frequently  called  gypsum : it  is  composed  of  sulphuric  acid,  lime,  and 
water. 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICTJLTU! 


43 


confirmed  by  fa  its.  It  is  probable  that  carbonate  of  mag- 
nesia acts  upon  the  soil  like  carbonated  lime. 

45.  Iron  is  found  in  the  soil  in  the  state  of  an  oxyde ; 
that  is  to  say,  united  with  oxygen.  It  is  sometimes,  also, 
met  with  as  a carbonate.  It  rarely  exists  in  large  quantity 
in  the  arable  soil ; if  it  existed  in  proportions  rather  strong, 
it  would  render  the  last  entirely  barren. 

46.  Iron,  through  its  property  of  coloring  soils,  causes 
them  to  absorb  more  heat ; for  it  is  well  known  that  white 
substances  are  not  so  readily  warmed  by  the  solar  rays  as 
black  ones. 

47.  Iron  is  more  or  less  injurious  according  to  the  de- 
gree of  oxydation.  When  it  does  not  contain  the  whole 
of  the  oxygen  with  which  it  is  capable  of  combining,  it 
injures  vegetation. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  substances  besides  silica  and  clay  are  sometimes  to  be  met 
with  in  the  soil  ? 

2.  Is  plaster  of  importance  to  agriculture  ? 

3.  Is  it  generally  disseminated  throughout  nature  ? 

4.  Of  what  is  marl  composed? 

5.  Which  are  the  richest  marls  ? 

6.  To  what  use  are  they  put  ? 

7.  How  do  we  detect  the  presence  of  calcareous  principles  in  a soil? 

8.  What  is  magnesia  ? 

9.  In  what  state  is  iron  found  in  the  soil  ? 

10.  Is  a ferruginous  soil  fertile  ? 

11.  How  can  iron  render  the  earth  warmer? 


LESSON  VII. 

THE  ORGANIC  PARTS  OF  THE  SOIL. 

48.  That  a soil  should  be  productive,  it  is  not  alone 
sufficient  that  it  should  contain,  in  suitable  proportions, 
the  mineral  substances  that  we  have  studied  in  the  pre- 


44 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


ceding  lessons ; but  it  must  also,  united  with  the  minera- 
logical  elements,  contain  elements  of  organic  origin ; for 
these  last  play  a very  active  part  in  vegetation. 

49.  If  we  examine  closely  what  passes  in  nature,  we 
will  perceive  that  all  organized  bodies  are  continually 
changing  in  shape,  until  finally,  the  vital  principle  ceasing 
to  exist  in  them,  they  perish  and  decompose.  It  is  these 
decomposed  bodies  that  we  put  on  the  land  to  satisfy  the 
wants  of  plants,  which,  after  having  served  as  food  to  man 
and  animals,  become  the  source  of  a new  vegetation. 

50.  This  alternate  and  continual  change  has  caused  it  to 
be  said  that  vegetation  is  the  source  of  reproduction,  and 
in  truth  : “ No  plants,  no  animals  ; no  animals,  no  manure ; 
no  manure,  no  cultivation.”  As  we  perceive,  bodies  are 
not  annihilated  ; they  are  only  continually  assuming  dif- 
ferent forms.  The  earth  may  be  considered  as  a mediator 
between  life  and  death,  as  it  receives  from  disorganized 
vegetables  elements  that  it  gives  back  to  a new  organic  life. 

51.  A soil  is  the  richer,  and  consequently  the  more  pro- 
ductive, as  it  contains  more  organic  remains.  On  the  other 
hand,  as  we  have  some  crops  that  are  more  exacting  than 
others  as  regards  the  quantity  of  nutritive  elements  that 
they  require,  it  follows,  that  the  farmer  should  take  the 
least  exhausting  crops  from  the  least  fertile  land ; for  in 
rational  agriculture  we  can  never  exact  from  a soil  more 
than  we  give  it,  or  more  than  its  nature  permits  it  to  fur- 
nish. 

52.  The  soil  is  not  always  exhausted  by  the  crops  that 
it  yields ; for  such  crops  leave  remains  that  decompose  in 
the  soil.  These  remains  are  the  leaves,  stems,  and  roots 
of  the  plant.  The  more  numerous  they  are,  the  less  is  the 
soil  injured  ; and  it  may  be  (as  with  clover),  that  it  has 
lost  none  of  its  value  ; so  that,  to  obtain  other  products,  it 
is  not  necessary  to  add  to  the  organic  remains  already 
within  it.  But  the  farmer  ought,  in  this  case,  to  be 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


45 

thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  exhausting  power  ofc  the 
plants  that  he  cultivates,  so  as  not  to  exact  from  the 
land  more  than  it  can  yield.  W e shall  return  to  this  sub- 
ject hereafter. 

53.  All  organic  bodies  are  not  composed  alikfc,  nor  are 
they  of  equal  value  as  manures.  They  may  be  derived 
from  vegetables  or  animals.  Those  of  vegetable  origin  are 
formed  for  the  most  part  of  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  carbon.* 
There  are  a few  vegetables,  such  as  the  cabbage  and  rape, 
that  contain  azote.f  Animal  remains,  on  the  contrary,  all 
contain  azote,  united  to  the  three  other  bodies ; and  for 
this  reason  they  are  more  nourishing,  more  active,  but  less 
durable,  than  vegetable  substances,  because  they  are  de- 
composed more  rapidly. 

54.  All  organized  bodies  are  not  decomposed  with  equal 
rapidity.  In  the  vegetable,  as  in  the  animal  kingdom, 
there  are  some  that  remain  a long  time  in  the  soil,  without 
producing  the  least  effect.  Different  means  are  employed 
to  render  them  suitable  to  the  wants  of  vegetation,  as  we 
shall  see  in  the  following  lesson,  treating  of  humus. 


QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  must  be  done  to  make  a soil  productive  ? 

2.  Do  organic  bodies  always  retain  the  same  form  ? 

3.  Is  vegetation  the  source  of  reproduction  ? 

4.  What  is  it  that  renders  the  soil  rich  and  productive  ? 

5.  What  vegetables  ought  to  be  cultivated  upon  a poor  soil  ? 

6.  What  are  the  remains  that  certain  vegetables  leave  in  the  soil  T 

7.  Do  all  plants  exhaust  the  soil  1 

8.  Are  all  organized  bodies  formed  of  the  same  elements  ? 

9.  Of  what  elements  are  vegetables  formed  ? 

10.  What  elements  form  animals  ? 

11.  Do  all  organic  remains  decompose  with  equal  rapidity  ? 

* Hydrogen  and  carbon  arc  two  bodies  very  generally  disseminated 
throughout  nature.  Hydrogen  united  with  oxygen  forms  water.  Carbon 
is  nothing  more  than  pure  charcoal.  Plants  assimilate  to  themselves  a 
greater  quantity  of  this  substance  than  of  any  other, 
t Azote  is  a body  which,  united  with  oxygen,  forms  the  air  that  we  breathe. 


46 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


LESSON  VIII. 

THE  FORMATION  OF  HUMUS,  AND  ITS  PROPERTIES. 

55.  Humus  results  from  the  decomposition  of  organic 
bodies  (see  No.  8).  The  proportion  and  nature  of  its  con- 
stituent elements  are  not  always  the  same ; for  in  some 
cases  animal,  in  others  vegetable  parts  predominate. 

56.  Straw,  and  the  excrements  of  cattle,  are  destined  to 
be  transformed  into  humus.  As  this  substance  is  of  an 
earthy  texture,  gardeners  give  it  the  name  of  mould . This 
last  denomination,  however,  has  also  been  given  to  the 
manure  derived  from  the  cleaning  of  ditches  and  the  sweep- 
ings of  streets,  that  have  been  exposed  for  a time,  in  heaps, 
to  the  action  of  the  atmosphere. 

57.  Among  the  bodies  forming  humus,  some  are  decom- 
posed in  the  open  air,  others  in  the  bosom  of  the  earth,  and 
others  in  wet  and  marshy  places,  according  to  the  circum- 
stances in  which  they  may  have  happened  to  be  placed. 
In  the  latter  case,  turf  is  often  formed.  This  proceeds 
from  the  decomposition  of  vegetables  that  have  grown 
successively,  for  a long  time,  upon  the  remains  of  plants 
similar  to  themselves. 

58.  Turf,  or  peaty  lands,  are  recognised  by  their  elas- 
ticity, their  porosity,*  and  their  blackish  color.  Turf  is 
employed  as  fuel,  and  as  manure.  Turf  formed  under  the 
water  is  devoid  of  any  acid  principle ; but  that  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  soil  is  often  acid. 

59.  The  properties  of  humus  vary  according  to  the 

* Elasticity  and  porosity  are  properties  possessed  by  all  bodies  in  a greater 
or  less  degree.  When  a body  submitted  to  pressure  bends  out,  and  resumes 
its  first  shape  after  the  pressure  is  taken  off,  it  is  said  to  be  elastic.  A 
sponge,  for  instance,  is  elastic.  Porosity  is  a property  possessed  by  bodies 
of  being  filled  with  holes,  of  a greater  or  less  size,  and  more  or  less  numer- 
ous. Thus,  the  human  skin  is  very  porous,  as  a square  inch  of  it  is  pierced 
with  many  thousand  holes. 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


47 


bodies  that  it  is  derived  from.  That  from  fecal  matters 
(pnudrette)  is  more  active  than  that  derived  from  the  ex- 
crements of  animals.  It  is  pretended  that  humus  accruing 
from  horses  and  birds  produces  a better  effect  on  the  soil 
than  that  from  cattle.  It  is  admitted  that  the  excrements 
of  pigeons  and  poultry  are  much  more  active,  in  similar 
quantities,  than  manures  derived  from  other  animals.  We 
should  not,  however,  as  we  shall  see  hereafter,  attach  too 
much  importance  to  these  distinctions  in  the  value  of  the 
manures  in  more  general  use. 

60.  Matters  derived  from  animals,  entering  easily  into 
putrefaction,  furnish  a humus  of  better  quality  than  that 
proceeding  from  vegetable  matter  ; for  these  are  often  de- 
composed with  great  difficulty. 

61.  Humus  is  sometimes  acid,  particularly  in  low  and 
wet  places,  such  as  turf  is  formed  in.  When  it  has  this 
property,  it  is  injurious  to  vegetation.  In  this  case,  to 
render  it  fit  food  for  plants,  calcareous  substances,  such  as 
lime,  are  put  in  the  soil ; and  they  are  in  this  instance  a 
very  efficient  remedy.  Moreover,  in  lands  that  contain 
carbonate  of  lime,  sour  humus  is  never  found.  Animal 
black  may  be  substituted  for  carbonate  of  lime ; it  is  a 
substance  derived  from  the  calcination  of  bones. 

62.  Paring  and  burning , also,  destroy  the  acidity  of 
the  soil.  It  consists  in  paring  off  the  crust  of  the  earth, 
some  two  or  three  inches  deep,  burning  it  in  small  hillocks, 
and  in  scattering  the  ashes.  This  operation  has  also  the 
advantage  of  destroying  noxious  weeds  and  insects. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  humus  ? 

2.  Is  it  always  composed  of  the  same  elements  ? 

3.  By  what  other  name  is  it  called  1 

4.  Where  are  the  bodies  decomposed  that  form  humus 

5.  Where  is  turf  found  ? 

6.  By  what  are  turf  lands  recognised  ? 

7.  What  use  is  made  of  turf  ? 


48 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


8.  In  what  circumstances  is  turf  sour? 

9.  What  distinction  is  drawn  in  the  value  of  humus  ? 

10.  Which  is  the  best  humus,  that  derived  from  animal  or  that  frum 
regetable  matters  ? 

11.  In  which  case  is  humus  sour  ? 

12.  What  means  are  employed  to  correct  the  acidity  in  humus  I 

13.  In  what  does  paring  and  burning  consist  ? 

14.  What  other  advantage  does  this  mode  possess  ? 


LESSON  IX. 

OF  THE  ACTION  OF  HUMUS  IN  THE  SOIL. 

63.  Organic  remains  that  are  decomposed  in  the  soil 
produce  two  different  effects : 1.  They  furnish  the  plants 
with  a part  of  their  nutritive  principles.  2.  They  act 
upon  the  physical  properties  of  the  soil. 

64.  The  properties  of  the  soil  are  divided  into  two 
classes.  Those  that  relate  to  its  composition  take  the 
name  of  chemical  properties ; and  those  that  concern  its 
texture,  its  position,  etc.,  are  called  physical  properties. 

65.  The  action  of  humus,  as  food  for  plants,  has  been 
very  much  discussed  by  modern  writers.  Some  contend 
that  humus,  by  means  of  the  carbon  that  it  contains,  fur- 
nishes the  roots  with  the  greater  part  of  the  elements 
necessary  to  che  vegetation  of  the  plant ; and  that  a feeble 
portion  only  of  these  elements  is  derived  from  the  atmo- 
sphere. Others,  on  the  contrary,  have  maintained  that  the 
atmosphere  supplies  the  greater  part  of  the  nutritive  ele- 
ments, because  the  hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  carbon,  that 
enter  into  the  composition  of  all  vegetables,  are  furnished 
by  air  and  water,  and  are  consequently  derived  from  the 
atmosphere. 

66.  This  last  opinion  is  in  truth  supported  by  some  facts. 
Thus,  we  have  some  very  productive  lands  containing  very 
little  humus.  Some  vegetables,  supplied  with  water  only, 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


49 


and  exposed  to  the  influence  of  the  air,  have  attained  a fine 
development.  But  these  are  altogether  exceptional  cases ; 
and  it  must  always  be  admitted  as  a general  rule,  that  a 
soil  yields  fine  crops  only  when  it  contains  a supply  of 
humus  in  proportion  to  the  wants  of  the  plants.  More- 
over, that  a vegetable  should  be  able  to  derive  its  food 
from  the  atmosphere,  it  must  already  have  grown  out  of 
the  earth ; and  it  must  consequently  have  received  from 
the  soil  sufficient  strength  to  perform  this  act. 

67.  It  is  known  that  a good  deal  of  carbon  enters  into 
the  composition  of  all  plants ; but  they  do  not  absorb  this 
substance  in  the  state  in  which  it  is  found  in  their  organi- 
zation. It  can  only  be  absorbed  by  the  roots  and  leaves  in 
the  form  of  gas,  and  united  with  oxygen  that  is  in  the  state 
of  carbonic  acid.  Plants  exposed  to  the  influence  of  the 
sun  lose  their  oxygen,  and  the  carbon  combines  with  the 
other  elements  to  furnish  that  infinite  variety  of  products 
that  vegetation  displays. 

68.  As  to  the  physical  properties  of  humus,  it  loosens 
the  compact,  and  give  consistency  to  light  soils.  By  its 
color  it  imparts  coolness  to  a dry  soil,  and  can  in  other 
cases  give  warmth  to  the  land.  It  renders  stiff  soils  per- 
meable to  air  and  other  atmospheric  influences,  and  per- 
mits the  roots  of  plants  to  penetrate  the  arable  surface 
with  greater  ease. 

69.  In  light  land  that  is  hot  and  burning,  humus  is  de- 
composed with  great  rapidity,  so  that  it  requires  but  a 
slight  quantity  to  produce  an  immediate  effect ; but  in  re- 
turn these  soils  are  soon  exhausted.  Calcareous  soils  also 
decompose  humus  with  great  facility,  and  for  this  reason 
such  lands  should  be  manured  with  substances  of  difficult 
decomposition ; for  in  a stiff  soil  they  would  remain  inert 
for  very  many  years. 

5 


50 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


QUESTIONS. 

1.  In  how  many  ways  does  humus  act  upon  the  soil  1 

2.  How  are  the  properties  of  the  soil  divided  ? 

3.  What  are  the  different  opinions  on  the  action  of  humus  in  the  act  of 
vegetation  ? 

4.  Are  there  facts  that  sustain  one  or  the  other  of  these  opinions  ? 

5.  Can  these  facts  establish  a general  rule  ? 

6.  In  what  state  is  carbon  found  when  absorbed  by  plants  ? 

7.  What  is  the  action  of  humus  on  the  physical  properties  of  soil  ? 

8.  In  what  soils  is  humus  most  readily  decomposed  ? 

9.  What  substances  ought  in  preference  to  be  placed  in  calcareous  soils  1 
10  What  would  they  do  in  stiff  soils  ? 


ELEMENTS  OP  AGRICULTURE. 


51 


CHAPTER  H. 

The  Physical  Properties  of  Soil . 

LESSON  X. 

TEXTURE  AND  DEPTH  OF  THE  SOIL. 

70.  The  nature  and  the  proportion  of  the  elements  that 
compose  a soil  are  not  the  only  causes  that  influence  its 
quality  or  degree  of  fertility.  The  physical  properties 
(see  No.  65)  exert  also  an  influence  that  it  is  very  impor- 
tant that  the  farmer  should  know.  There  may  be  a con- 
siderable difference  in  the  value  of  two  fields,  even  when 
they  are  composed  of  elements  of  the  same  nature,  and 
are  in  the  same  neighborhood.  This  difference  is  due  to 
several  causes,  that  we  will  now  examine. 

71.  The  first  thing  that  a farmer  should  attend  to,  who 
wishes  to  lease  or  rent  a farm,  is  the  texture  and  depth  of 
the  soil.  These  are  two  properties  that  should  have  the 
greatest  influence,  not  only  upon  his  choice  of  rotations,* 
but  upon  the  cost  of  cultivation.  Of  two  farms  of  equal 
extent,  one  may  cost  twice  as  much  to  cultivate  as  the 
other.  We  may  easily  conceive,  then,  how  important  it 
is  that  the  farmer  should  possess  a thorough  knowledge  of 
the  properties  to  which  we  allude. 

72.  The  texture  or  consistency  of  a soil  is  nothing  more 
than  the  degree  of  strength  with  which  its  molecules  are 
bound  to  each  other  ; this  is  what  is  called  cohesion.  The 
more  consistent  a soil  is,  the  harder  it  is  to  work,  and  the 

* A system  of  rotation  is  that  by  which,  on  a given  piece  of  land,  one  crop 
Is  made  systematically  to  follow  another. 


52  ' ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

more  impenetrable  to  the  roots  of  plants.  A medium  con- 
sistency agrees  best  with  vegetation.  This  may  be  ob- 
tained by  hauling  upon  the  land  a quantity  of  humus  ; but 
as  this  method  would  be  too  costly,  particular  substances 
are  made  use  of  (that  we  shall  describe  hereafter),  called 
ameliorators  (mineral  manures). 

73.  If  too  close  a texture  is  injurious  to  vegetation,  too 
loose  a one  is  not  less  so,  and  very  sandy  land  is  of  little 
or  no  value.  In  a blowing  sand,  plants  can  not  take  the 
fixity  that  they  require,  and  are  forced  to  fall. 

74.  All  soils  are  not  of  equal  depth ; they  vary  from 
half  an  inch  to  many  feet. 

75.  Deep  soils  possess  over  others  important  advantages. 
They  retain  moisture  better  in  seasons  of  drought,  without 
becoming  too  wet  in  rainy  weather.  When  equally  rich, 
they  furnish  plants  with  a greater  mass  of  food  than  other 
soils.  Long-rooted  plants,  such  as  lucerne,  and  tap-rooted 
plants,*  such  as  beets,  parsnips,  carrots,  etc.,  thrive  best 
in  soils  of  great  depth. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  Are  the  physical  properties  of  the  soil  of  any  consequence  to  the 
cultivator  1 

2.  What  ought  first  to  he  looked  to  by  a fanner  wishing  to  lease  or  pur« 
chase  a farm  ? 

3.  Why  should  we  seek  to  know  the  texture  and  depth  of  a soil  1 

4.  What  is  meant  by  the  consistence  of  a soil  ? 

5.  What  are  the  defects  of  too  much  closeness  1 
What  is  the  best  consistence  ? 

7.  Will  humus  bring  it  about  1 

8.  What  are  the  inconveniences  of  sandy  soils  1 

9.  Are  all  soils  of  the  same  depth  ? 

10.  What  advantages  do  deep  soils  possess  over  others  ? 

11.  Which  are  the  plants  that  thrive  best  in  a deep  soil  1 

* Tap-roots  are  those  that  descend  perpendicularly,  to  a certain  depth,  in 
the  soil. 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


53 


LESSON  XI. 

SITUATION  OF  THE  SURFACE. 

76.  Whether  the  surface  of  a farm  lies  well  or  not,  de- 
pends upon  the  nature  of  the  soil.  Thus,  sandy  land  rarely 
suffers  from  being  level,  as  it  seldom  retains  too  much 
moisture.  Clayey  lands,  on  the  other  hand,  being  natur- 
ally disposed  to  moisture,  would  evidently  suffer  from  con- 
tinued rains,  if  so  situated.  The  water  not  being  able  to 
penetrate  through  the  earth,  would  remain  upon  the  sur- 
face, and  injure  and  sometimes  kill  the  plants. 

77.  Arable  lands  lie  best  when  just  sufficiently  rolling 
to  carry  off  the  surplus  water,  with  the  assistance  of  the 
water-furrows  that  should  always  be  made  immediately 
after  seeding.  Water-furrows  are  of  great  importance, 
and  farmers  are  frequently  great  losers  by  neglecting  to 
make  them  for  wheat  covered  by  water,  in  freezing 
weather,  often  suffers,  and  is  frequently  killed. 

78.  In  some  cases,  water-furrows  do  not  remedy  the 
evil  of  too  much  moisture.  Recourse  is  then  had  to  ditch- 
ing, or  what  is  better,  under-draining,  which  is  done  by 
digging  narrow  ditches,  filling  them  half  full  with  broken 
stone  or  brush,  and  then  throwing  the  earth  back  into 
them.  The  water,  when  the  operation  is  properly  per- 
formed, will  flow  freely  among  the  stones  or  brush,  at  the 
bottom  of  the  ditch. 

79.  Some  farmers  have  even  changed  the  nature  of  the 
subsoil,  by  replacing  it  with  stone  and  gravel ; but  this 
process  is  enormously  expensive,  and  only  applicable  on  a 
very  small  scale. 

SO.  Hilly  lands  possess  some  advantages  over  those  that 
are  level ; among  others,  the  better  exposition  of  the  plants 
to  light  and  air. 

81.  But  these  advantages  are  overbalanced  by  serious 

5* 


54 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


drawbacks  ; heavy  rains  carry  off  the  soil  and  manures ; 
the  ploughing  is  more  difficult,  and  the  hauling  heavier. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  indicates  the  best  situation  that  a soil  should  be  in  t 

2.  May  sandy  lands  be  level  ? 

3.  Is  it  as  well  that  clay  lands  should  be  level  1 

4.  How  do  clay  lands  lie  best  ? 

5.  What  precautions  should  the  farmer  take  to  preserve  his  lands  from 
too  much  moisture  ? 

6.  When  should  we  under-drain  ? 

7.  What  other  means  can  be  employed  to  carry  off  the  water  ? 

8.  What  advantages  do  hilly  lands  possess  ? 

9.  What  are  the  objections  to  these  lands  ? 


LESSON  XII. 

SUB-SOIL. 

82.  The  elements  of  the  sub-soil  are  sometimes  of  the 
same  nature  as  those  that  compose  the  surface  ; but  they 
have  not  the  same  properties,  for  they  are  deprived  of  con- 
tact with  the  air,  and  are  rarely  found  mixed  with  mould. 
In  other  cases,  the  mineralogical  elements  of  the  sub-soil 
are  of  a nature  entirely  different  from  those  on  the  surface. 

83.  We  may  in  general  distinguish  three  species  of  sub- 
soil ; the  clayey,  the  sandy  or  gravelly,  and  the  calcareous. 
Depending  upon  the  nature  of  the  soil,  each  of  these  sub- 
soils, as  we  shall  see,  endows  it  with  properties  more  or 
less  favorable. 

84.  A clayey  sub-soil,  beneath  a clay  soil,  is  injurious, 
as  it  retains  too  much  moisture  in  wet  weather,  and  be- 
comes too  hard  in  seasons  of  drought.  This  evil  is  some- 
what corrected  by  deep  ploughing,  which  loosens  the  soil, 
rendering  it  more  permeable,  and  capable  of  retaining  a 
greater  quantity  of  water,  without  being  injurious  to  vege- 
tation. 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


55 


85.  If  a sandy  soil  covers  a clay  sub-soil,  it  is  much  less 
exposed  to  the  evil  effects  of  drought,  on  account  of  the 
moisture  retained  beneath  it ; and  by  deep  ploughing  the 
clay  may  be  mixed  with  and  thus  improve  it. 

86.  These  mixtures  of  the  sub-soil  and  soil  are  not  the 
only  means  that  the  farmer  possesses  of  preserving  in  the 
land  the  moisture  necessary  to  the  vegetation  of  plants. 
Frequent  working  gives  also  to  land  the  property  of  retain- 
ing moisture,  and  this  is  the  case  as  well  with  a stiff  as  with 
a sandy  soil.  The  cause  of  this  has  not  yet  been  well  ex- 
plained, but  it  is  so ; and  it  is  in  contradiction  to  an 
opinion  entertained  by  many,  that  frequent  working  in 
times  of  drought  is  injurious  to  the  crop. 

87.  As  a clay  sub-soil  is  suitable  to  sandy  land,  just  so  is 
a sandy  sub-soil  favorable  to  a surface  containing  much 
clay.  It  permits  the  infiltration  of  the  superabundant 
moisture,  and  may  ameliorate  the  soil  if  mixed  with  it. 

88.  But  a sandy  soil,  based  upon  a sub-soil  of  the  same 
nature,  being  entirely  too  permeable  to  moisture,  must 
suffer  much  from  drought,  and  yield  but  indifferent  crops. 
There  is  too  great  waste  of  manures,  as  their  liquid  parts 
sink  too  deep. 

89.  When  the  soil  is  devoid  of  carbonate  of  lime,  and 
the  subsoil  is  calcareous,  a mixture  of  the  two  by  deep 
ploughing  is  evidently  beneficial.  Stiff  soils  particularly 
will  profit  by  this  mixture  ; for  at  the  same  time  they  will 
lose  a portion  of  their  tenacity,  become  more  favorable  to 
vegetation,  and  rendered  easier  to  work.  But  the  carbon- 
ate of  lime  in  the  sub-soil  must  be  in  an  earthy  state,  and 
not  in  the  form  of  stones,  a few  only  of  which,  the  schis- 
tous, can,  as  we  have  seen,  become  friable  on  the  surface. 

90.  From  what  precedes,  we  perceive  that  there  are 
many  cases  in  which  deep  ploughing  can  improve  the  soil, 
and  increase  its  products.  It  is  true  that,  in  certain  cases, 
these  workings  appear  in  the  first  years  to  injure  rather 


58 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


than  benefit  the  soil.  This  is  the  case  when  the  sub-soil 
contains  principles, such  as  the  oxyde  of  iron,  that  may  be 
fatal  to  vegetation.  But  generally  in  a few  years  these 
injurious  properties  disappear,  after  the  elements  brought 
to  the  surface  have  been  acted  upon  by  atmospheric  in- 
fluences, and  mixed  with  humus. 

91.  The  farmer  sometimes  contents  himself  (and  per- 
haps it  is  the  best  plan)  with  merely  stirring  the  sub-soil, 
without  bringing  it  to  the  surface.  It  is  then  acted  upon 
by  the  atmosphere,  and  gradually  mixed  with  fertilizing 
influences.  This  operation  is  performed  by  a plough  made 
for  the  purpose,  called  a sub-soil  plough,  which  follows  in 
the  furrow  immediately  behind  the  ordinary  plough. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  Are  the  mineralogical  elements  of  the  soil  and  sub-soil  of  the  same 
nature  ? 

2.  How  many  kinds  of  sub-soil  are  there  ? 

3.  Is  a clay  sub-soil  favorable  to  a clay  soil  1 

4.  What  is  the  remedy  for  too  much  moisture  in  a clay  soil  ? 

5.  Is  a sandy  soil  favored  by  a clay  sub-soil  1 

6.  Do  frequent  workings  preserve  moisture  in  the  soil  7 

7.  Is  a sandy  sub-soil  favorable  to  a clay  soil  ? 

8.  When  the  soil  and  sub-soil  are  both  sandy,is  it  favorable  ? 

9.  Can  a calcareous  sub-soil  improve  the  surface  7 

10.  Which  soils  are  most  benefited  by  mixture  with  carbonate  of  lime  ? 

11.  In  what  state  should  the  carbonate  of  lime  be  to  produce  an  effect 
upon  the  soil  ? 

12.  In  what  circumstances  would  deep  ploughing  be  disadvantageous  7 

13.  How  is  the  soil  deepened  without  bringing  the  sub-soil  to  the  surface  1 


LESSON  XIII. 

THE  EFFECT  OF  CLIMATE  ON  VEGETATION. 

92.  The  temperature  requires  great  attention  on  the 
part  of  the  cultivator ; for  it  is  well  known  what  influence 
it  exercises  on  vegetation,  and  that  it  varies  according  to 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


57 


localities.  In  the  northern  states  the  cold  is  generally 
intense,  and  lasts  a long  time ; whereas  in  the  southern 
heat  predominates.  There  are  also  countries  that,  by  their 
position,  are  much  damper  than  others,  or  which  are  more 
exposed  to  storms,  hail,  etc.  It  is  to  the  aggregate  of  all 
these  atmospheric  circumstances,  that  we  give  the  name 
of  climate. 

93.  We  may  adopt  three  climates;  the  northern,  the 
southern,  and  the  mean,  or  intermediate.  But  these  three 
climates  may  be  subdivided  to  infinity  ; and  it  may  almost 
be  said,  that  each  state,  county,  town,  and  village,  pos- 
sesses a particular  climate  of  its  own ; for  it  is  not  a rare 
circumstance  to  see  two  neighboring  places  differ  greatly 
in  this  respect. 

94.  The  position  of  a district  or  place  influences  its  cli- 
mate greatly.  There  are  places  that  enjoy  a low  (cold) 
temperature  though  beneath  the  equator.  This  comes  from 
their  position,  which  is  much  more  elevated  than  the  level 
of  the  ocean.  This  is  partly  the  reason  why  the  cold  is 
always  greater  on  the  summit  of  high  mountains  than  at 
their  base  ; and  it  is  also  one  of  the  reasons  why  very  high 
mountains,  though  in  southern  countries,  are  always  cov- 
ered with  ice  and  snow. 

95.  Each  plant  has  not  only  a soil,  the  properties  of 
which  suit  it  better  than  those  of  any  other,  but  it  has 
also  a climate  appropriated  to  its  nature.  Moreover,  the 
species  of  cultivated  plants  are  in  many  cases  as  different 
as  the  temperature  of  the  place  in  which  they  are  found 
is  more  or  less  elevated  (warm).  Thus  it  is  that  in  the 
south  the  cotton-plant,  the  sugar-cane,  and  the  fig,  flourish  ; 
whereas,  if  these  vegetables  were  transplanted  to  the 
north,  they  would  perish  from  cold. 

96.  Crops  ripen  much  more  rapidly  upon  a warm  than 
upon  a cold  soil ; so  in  southern  climates  vegetation  is 
much  more  rapid  than  at  the  north. 


58 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


97.  Vegetation  in  general  suffers  from  intense  cold,  but 
more  particularly  that  of  certain  plants.  But  what  does 
the  most  injury,  in  these  cases,  are  the  sudden  changes  in 
temperature  ; and  the  damage  is  greater  to  plants  growing 
upon  light  soils.  Whenever  the  temperature  falls  gradu- 
ally, vegetation  suffers  but  little.  It  is  for  this  reason  that 
a frozen  plant  should  never  be  put  in  a warm  place.  To 
restore  its  vigor,  we  should  give  it  a temperature  that  will 
cause  it  to  thaw  insensibly. 

98.  It  is  particularly  after  great  moisture  that  plants 
suffer  when  overtaken  by  frost ; for  in  this  case  the  stem 
is  more  tender  and  watery.  The  water  and  sap,  that  are 
increased  in  volume  by  congelation,  then  burst  the  tissues 
of  the  plant,  and  destroy  the  vital  principle  of  certain  in- 
dispensable organs. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  the  climate  of  a country  ? 

2.  What  are  the  principal  climates  ? 

3.  Are  there  others? 

4.  Does  the  position  of  a place  influence  its  climate  ? 

5.  Can  the  same  plants  be  cultivated  in  places  of  different  temperature! 

6.  In  which  climate  is  vegetation  most  rapid  ? 

7.  Is  vegetation  injured  by  cold  ? 

8.  When  is  a change  of  temperature  most  hurtful  ? 

9.  How  must  we  proceed  to  thaw  a plant  ? 

10.  In  what  circumstances  do  plants  suffer  most  from  cold  T 


LESSON  XIV. 

•T  * EFFECT  OF  CLIMATE  UPON  CULTIVATION  AND  UPON 
ANIMAL  ECONOMY. 

99.  In  the  preceding  lesson,  we  indicated  the  causes 
upon  which  the  state  of  a climate  depends,  and  its  general 
effects  upon  vegetation,  We  have  yet  to  consider  it  under 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE.  59 

another  aspect ; its  influence  on  the  cultivable  properties 
of  the  soil,  and  the  rearing  of  domestic  animals. 

100.  A vegetable  transplanted  from  one  soil  to  another, 
does  not  at  first  grow  with  its  original  vigor.  So  is  it  in 
this  case  with  men  and  animals.  A sudden  change  of 
diet  deranges  for  some  time  the  animal  organization  ; and 
a transition  even  somewhat  protracted  is  always  necessary. 
Plants  require  to  be  gradually  accustomed  to  the  new  cir- 
cumstances in  which  they  are  to  grow ; and  often,  when 
removed  to  a new  climate,  their  conformation  is  changed, 
and  their  products,  in  both  nature  and  quantity. 

101.  The  study  of  climate  is  above  all  necessary  when 
the  object  is  to  change,  in  any  locality,  the  system  of  ag- 
riculture that  has  been  for  a long  time  prevailing  there. 
In  this  case  some  trials  should  be  made  to  ascertain 
whether  the  plant  desired  to  be  introduced  into  the  rota- 
tion will  succeed.  The  same  precautions  should  be  taken 
with  the  animals  to  be  employed  in  agricultural  labor. 

102.  In  a damp  climate,  the  defects  of  the  lighter  soils 
are  less  to  be  feared,  as  they  are  then  less  exposed  to 
drought.  The  dampness  of  climate,  however,  does  not 
depend  so  much  upon  the  quantity  of  water  that  falls  as 
upon  the  heat,  more  or  less  great,  that  causes  it  to  evap 
orate.  But  it  is  well  known  that  one  country  may  possess 
a dryer  climate  than  another,  though  more  rain  may  fall 
in  the  first  than  in  the  second. 

103.  The  Creator,  who  placed  and  arranged  everything 
here  in  such  admirable  order,  adapted  also  to  man’s  wants 
all  the  plants  that  grow  in  the  climate  that  he  inhabits. 
In  England,  for  instance,  the  climate,  though  damp  in 
consequence  of  its  vicinity  to  the  ocean,  is  more  regular 
than  with  us.  Under  such  a climate  succulent  food  is 
very  necessary ; accordingly  nature  favors,  to  a remarkable 
degree,  the  development  of  such  plants  as  are  necessary  to 
the  maintenance  of  numerous  herds. 


60 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


104.  In  the  south,  where  the  heat  is  greater,  nature 
produces  fruits,  and  other  refreshing  aliments,  so  necessary 
to  man  in  warm  climates.  Animals  too  can  be  maintained 
differently  from  those  in  the  north ; for  there  the  temperature 
permits  them  to  pass  the  whole  year  in  the  open  air.  In 
the  United  States,  between  Maine  and  Florida,  we  have 
almost  every  variety  of  climate  ; consequently,  in  the  way 
of  agricultural  products,  the  nation  is  singularly  rich. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  Does  a vegetable  transplanted  from  one  climate  to  another  grow  off  at 
once  ? 

2 In  what  instance  is  the  study  of  climate  particularly  necessary! 

3.  Do  the  lighter  soils  suffer  much  in  damp  climates  1 

4.  Are  the  productions  of  the  different  climates  adapted  to  the  peculiar 
wants  of  the  inhabitants  of  those  climates  ? 

5.  What  is  the  condition  of  the  United  States  in  regard  to  climate  1 

6 What  is  their  condition  in  regard  to  productions  ? 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


61 


PART  THIRD. 


CHAPTER  I. 

Ameliorators . 

LESSON  I. 

GENERAL  VIEWS  OF  MANURES,  AMELIORATORS,  AND  STIM- 
ULANTS. 

1.  Most  of  the  products  of  the  earth  serve  as  food  for 
men  and  animals.  Among  the  latter,  some  furnish  us 
with  the  necessary  power  to  work  the  earth ; others  give 
us  milk,  cheese,  wool,  meat,  etc.  But  that  animals  may 
continue  to  furnish  us  with  these,  the  necessaries  of  life, 
they  should  be  well  cared  for,  and  supplied  with  an  abun- 
dance of  healthy  and  nourishing  food. 

2.  So  is  it  with  the  earth.  She  never  refuses  us  her 
gifts  if  she  is  well  cared  for,  and  her  strength  renewed, 
after  furnishing  food  to  exhausting  crops. 

3.  All  cultivated  vegetables  do  not  exhaust  the  soil  to 
the  same  degree.  The  farmer  should  study  carefully  the 
properties  of  plants  in  this  respect ; for  it  is  the  only  way 
to  establish  a judicious  and  profitable  system  of  rotation. 
Thus,  after  a crop  of  clover,  the  land  requires  no  manure  ; 
for  it  receives  from  this  crop  more  than  it  gives ; and  it 
may  grow  another  crop  more  or  less  exhausting,  depend- 
ing upon  its  previous  condition. 

6 


62 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE 


4.  That  a soil  should  be  productive,  it  must  contain  the 
mineralogical  elements  in  suitable  proportions.  Each  one 
of  the  simple  bodies  (silica,  clay,  lime,  etc.)  that  we  have 
described,  is  sterile  in  itself;  it  is  only  by  their  mixture 
that  they  can  give  the  soil  the  qualities  suited  to  vegeta- 
tion. 

5.  If  Nature  has  not  always  effected  these  mixtures  in 
just  proportions  (and  this  is  one  reason  of  the  difference  in 
the  value  of  land),  she  furnishes  us,  in  return,  the  means 
of  amelioration,  that  enable  the  farmer  to  supply  this  de- 
fect. It  is  precisely  because  the  use  of  fertilizing  means 
is  neglected,  that  we  see  everywhere  so  much  waste  land. 

6.  The  soil  requires  two  species  of  elements  that  it  is 
important  not  to  compound.  Some  accrue-  from  organic 
bodies,  and  are  called  manures  ; their  principal  object  is 
to  serve  as  food  for  plants.  The  others  are  the  produce, 
for  the  most  part,  of  the  mineral  kingdom,  and  take  the 
name  of  ameliorators  ; they  give  the  earth  advantageous 
properties  relative  to  cultivation,  by  improving  its  texturt 
when  either  too  stiff  or  too  loose. 

7.  There  are  also  other  substances,  such  as  plaster, 
which  in  most  cases,  without  modifying  the  composition 
of  the  soil,  give  activity  to  the  vegetation  of  plants,  by 
forcing  them  to  absorb  more  nourishment  from  the  soil 
and  atmosphere.  These  bodies  are  called  stimulants. 

8.  The  same  substance  may  perform  more  than  one 
function ; it  may  serve  at  the  same  time  as  a manure  and 
as  an  ameliorator.  Dung,  for  instance,  as  we  shall  see 
hereafter,  applied  to  certain  soils,  may  at  the  same  time 
furnish  food  to  plants  and  force  into  action  certain  inert 
principles  contained  in  the  soil. 

9.  It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  the  success  of  the 
farmer,  that  he  should  give  his  attention  to  soils  that  are 
deficient  in  their  composition ; but  above  all  things  he 
sh'  uld  be  acquainted  with  the  mode  of  action,  and  the 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


63 


manner  of  employing  substances  that  are  so  necessary  to 
the  amelioration  of  his  land.  This  knowledge  must  guide 
him  both  in  his  choice  of  ameliorations  and  in  the  manner 
of  their  execution.  It  is  for  this  reason  that,  after  the 
study  of  soils,  we  introduce  that  of  ameliorators,  the  em- 
ployment of  which,  in  many  cases,  is  indispensable. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  Do  animals  furnish  products  useful  to  man  T 

2.  What  must  be  done  to  enable  them  to  continue  the  supply  T 

3.  What  must  be  done  for  the  earth  to  enable  it  to  continue  its  supplies  ? 

4.  Are  all  plants  equally  exhausting  1 

5.  What  must  the  farmer  do  in  this  respect  ? 

6.  What  is  necessary  that  a soil  should  be  productive  ? 

7.  Are  simple  bodies  always  mixed  in  suitable  proportions  ! 

8.  Why  are  there  so  many  waste  lands  ? 

9.  Which  are  the  two  species  of  elements  required  by  the  soil  ? 

10.  What  are  stimulants  ? 

11.  Can  the  same  substances  act  in  more  ways  than  one  on  the  soil? 

12.  To  proceed  properly  in  the  amelioration  of  soils,  what  knowledge 
should  the  farmer  possess  1 


LESSON  II. 

LIMING  LANDS,  OR  THE  USE  OF  LIME  AS  AN  AMELIORATOR. 

10.  Lime,  as  we  have  seen,  is  a compound  of  oxygen 
and  a simple  body  called  calcium.  To  obtain  it,  carbon- 
ate of  lime  must  be  submitted  to  the  action  of  heat  until 
calcined.  The  water  of  crystallization  escapes  in  the  form 
of  vapor,  and  the  result  is  quick  or  caustic  lime. 

11.  Besides  the  use  that  is  made  of  lime  in  building,  it 
is  also  employed  as  an  ameliorator  in  those  localities  in 
which  agriculture  is  in  a state  of  improvement ; and  if 
farmers  have  not  often  recourse  to  this  means  of  increas- 
ing the  value  of  their  lands,  it  is  because  they  are  gener- 
ally ignorant  of  the  good  effects  it  produces,  or  because 


64 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


they  do  not  know  in  what  circumstances  liming  can  be 
advantageously  effected. 

12.  To  use  lime  as  an  ameliorating  substance,  it  is 
necessary  that  the  farmer  should  know  how  to  distinguish 
the  soils  that  would  be  improved  by  the  application  of  cal- 
careous ameliorators.  In  effect,  it  is  useless  to  add  humus 
to  land  containing  already  enough  ; just  so  is  it  useless  to 
add  lime  to  land  that  has  enough.  It  would  be  a useless 
waste  of  labor,  and  might  produce  injurious  consequences. 

13.  The  carbonate  of  lime,  then,  as  an  ameliorator,  is 
only  suited  to  such  lands  as  do  not  contain  calcareous  prin- 
ciples. It  is  easy  to  recognise  them : whenever  an  earth, 
brought  in  contact  with  an  acid,  produces  an  effervescence, 
we  may  be  certain  that  it  contains  a sufficiency  of  lime  to 
produce  the  desired  effect  upon  such  organic  parts  of  diffi- 
cult decomposition  as  may  be  contained  in  the  soil. 

14.  The  spontaneous  vegetation,  also,  frequently  indi- 
cates the  lands  upon  which  lime  may  be  used  to  advantage. 
Thus,  those  lands  upon  which  broom,  red  sheep-sorrel, 
heath,  the  chestnut,  and  resinous  trees,  grow  spontaneously, 
are  generally  disposed  to  increase  in  value  by  the  applica- 
tion of  lime. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  the  composition  tsflime? 

2.  How  is  it  obtained  1 

3.  What  use  is  it  put  to  1 

4.  Why  is  not  its  use  more  general  in  agriculture  ! 

5.  What  ought  the  cultivator  to  know  to  make  use  of  lime  ? 

6.  Are  calcareous  soils  improved  by  liming  ? 

7.  How  are  calcareous  soils  recognised  ? 

8.  By  what  sign  do  we  recognise  the  utility  of  liming  a foil  t 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


65 


LESSON  III. 

LIMING  LANDS  (CONTINUED). 

15.  We  have  seen  that,  as  an  ameliorator,  lime  is  not 
suitable  to  calcareous  soils ; but  we  are  not  thereby  to  un- 
derstand that  it  is  to  be  employed  with  advantage  on  every 
other  kind  of  soil.  It  has  been  remarked,  on  the  contrary, 
that  on  certain  soils,  lime  has  produced  no  effect  whatever, 
without  its  being  possible  to  discover  in  their  composition 
any  explanation  of  the  fact. 

16.  We  may  then  conclude  that  soils,  independent  of 
their  composition,  are  more  or  less  disposed  to  improve- 
ment by  calcareous  ameliorators.  Trials  should  be  made 
in  this  respect ; and  this  means  of  amelioration,  where  it 
can  be  employed,  should  never  be  neglected. 

17.  Lime  has  frequently  been  employed  with  disadvan- 
tage, because  it  was  looked  upon  as  a manure.  If  organic 
remains  are  found  in  the  soil,  in  tolerable  quantities,  we 
may  certainly  obtain  by  means  of  lime  alone  tolerably  fair 
crops,  for  two  or  three  years  in  succession ; but  after  this 
time  we  will  have  an  exhausted  soil,  that  will  return  with 
great  difficulty  to  a productive  state.  By  liming  without 
manuring,  we  would  give  the  soil  a factitious  activity, 
that  would  be  followed  by  sterility. 

18.  We  ought  then  to  consider  the  liming  of  land  as  a 
means  of  preparing  the  food  of  plants,  and  of  putting  in 
action  inert  principles  that  otherwise  would  have  remained 
dormant  and  unproductive ; but  we  must  not  think  that 
lime  itself  is  a principle  of  nourishment.  Perhaps,  as  is 
supposed  by  a distinguished  German  author,*  liming  may 
also  supply  the  roots  with  a quantity  of  carbonic  acid,  in 
addition  to  that  furnished  them  by  the  humus. 

* See  Von  Thaer,  in  the  “ Fanners’  Library  and  Monthly  Journal  of  Agri- 
culture.* 


6* 


66 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


19.  It  is  wrong  to  pretend,  as  some  do,  that  the  effect 
of  lime  is  different  as  it  happens  to  be  in  the  state  of  car- 
bonate or  that  of  quick-lime.  Facts  prove  the  contrary, 
and  theory  agrees  with  them.  In  effect,  lime,  when  it 
comes  from  the  kiln  where  it  is  quick,  is  deprived  of  its 
carbonic  acid ; but  it  recovers  it  very  soon  when  placed  in 
the  soil,  by  taking  possession  of  that  which  it  finds  there, 
or  by  drawing  it  from  the  atmosphere.  Thus,  whether 
we  place  the  caustic  lime  or  the  carbonate  of  lime  in  the 
earth,  it  must  in  the  end  be  carbonate  of  lime  that  pro- 
duces the  effect.  Only  lime  deprived  of  its  carbonic  acid, 
may  be  employed  in  rather  smaller  quantity. 

20.  We  repeat,  to  fix  the  attention  upon  the  utility  of 
lime,  that  the  farmer  ought  by  all  means  to  make  a trial 
of  it  on  a small  scale,  upon  the  different  species  of  soil  that 
he  cultivates.  He  may  be  guided  by  the  result  of  these 
experiments.  Without  this  precaution,  he  would  run  the 
risk  of  losses,  often  heavy. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  Does  lime  produce  an  effect  on  all  soils  that  are  not  calcareous  ? 

2.  What  ought  to  be  done  to  ascertain  if  a soil  should  be  limed  ? 

3.  What  is  the  error  that  has  often  caused  liming  to  be  abandoned  t 

4.  What  is  the  effect  of  lime  without  manure  ? 

5.  How  ought  we  to  consider  the  liming  of  land  ? 

6.  Is  there  a difference  in  the  effect  of  carbonated  and  caustic  lime  ? 

7.  What  should  the  farmer  do  to  decide  about  liming  1 


LESSON  IV. 

LIMING  LANDS  (CONTINUED). 

21.  We  have  seen  that  lime  gives  activity  to  vegetation, 
by  the  property  which  it  possesses  of  decomposing  humus, 
and  rendering  it  sooner  fit  to  serve  as  food  to  plants.  It 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE.  67 

also  destroys  the  acid  principles  in  the  land  ; but  this  must 
not  be  in  a low,  wet  state,  or  it  must  first  be  drained. 

22.  Moreover,  lime,  when  it  acts,  according  to  the 
opinion  of  some  writers,  gives  additional  strength  to  the 
straw  of  the  different  cereals,  and  thereby  prevents  them 
from  falling  or  lodging.  It  corrects  the  defects  of  soils 
that  are  too  cold  and  wet,  and  increases  the  porosity  of 
those  that  are  too  stiff.  It  consequently  influences,  in  a 
sensible  degree,  the  yield  of  crops. 

23.  We  have  seen  (No.  19)  that  the  effect  of  carbonate 
of  lime  does  not  differ  from  that  produced  by  quick-lime ; 
this  last,  however,  should  be  preferred,  and  for  this  reason: 
Calcareous  substances,  to  produce  all  the  effects  to  be  ex- 
pected from  them,  should  be  in  an  earthy  state.  It  is  then 
necessary  that  the  carbonate,  before  being  employed, 
should  be  pulverized,  or  reduced  to  powder ; this  is  easily 
done  by  calcination.  To  pulverize  it  in  any  other  way 
would  be  tedious  and  expensive. 

24.  When  we  are  assured  that  a soil  contains  no  calca- 
reous substances,  the  next  thing  to  be  ascertained  is  the 
quantity  of  lime  to  be  employed,  and  the  time  and  manner 
of  applying  it.  Here  are  some  rules  to  be  followed  in 
this  respect. 

25.  The  quantity  of  lime  to  be  used  depends,  in  general — 
1.  On  the  durability  desired  to  be  given  to  the  ameliora- 
tion. 2.  The  nature  of  the  soil  to  be  limed.  3.  The  na- 
ture of  the  lime  that  is  used.  It  is  by  the  examination  of 
these  three  causes  that  we  can  ascertain  the  quantity  of 
lime  necessary  to  be  applied.  It  is,  however,  understood  that 
clay  soils,  particularly  those  that  are  cold  turf-lands,  and  the 
soils  in  which  organic  remains  do  not  readily  decompose, 
require  heavier  liming  than  light  and  sandy  soils.  On  the 
last,  not  more  than  half  as  much  is  used  as  in  the  first. 

26.  Lime  may  be  applied  to  the  land  in  different  ways, 
and  at  different  periods.  1.  It  may  be  laid  on  the  surface 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


of  mowing  or  pasture  land,  and  remain  there  until  it  is 
ploughed  up  for  tillage,  even  though  this  should  be  several 
years  afterward.  The  lime  in  this  case  quickly  sinks  into 
the  soil,  and,  acting  upon  it,  prepares  it  for  crops  when  it 
is  again  tilled.  2.  It  may  be  spread  upon  the  ground,  and 
covered  by  the  plough,  just  after  a crop  of  any  kind  has 
been  gathered.  In  this  case,  it  prepares  the  soil  for  the 
succeeding  crops.  3.  It  may  be  spread  upon  the  surface 
even  when  plants  are  growing.  This  practice,  however, 
though  sometimes  convenient,  is  rarely  to  be  imitated. 
4.  It  may  be  and  is  most  frequently  applied  during  the 
season  when  the  land  is  in  fallow,  or  in  preparation  for 
what  are  termed  fallow  crops. 

27.  That  lime  may  produce  an  immediate  effect,  it 
must  be  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  soil ; and  this  is  why 
it  is  generally  put  upon  a fallow,  a year  or  more  before  it 
is  broken  up.  There  is  a very  simple  machine  now  in 
use,  called  a lime-spreader,  that  is  attached  to  the  tail  of 
an  ordinary  cart,  which  spreads  the  lime  very  evenly. 

28.  The  effect  of  lime  is  sometimes  not  perceptible 
until  the  second  or  third  year ; this  is  when  the  mixture 
with  the  soil  has  not  been  properly  effected.  It  is  very 
important  that  land  should  be  well  drained  before  being 
limed,  because  lime  improves  only  such  as  are  moist  by 
nature,  and  not  by  position. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  the  action  of  lime  upon  land  ? 

2.  What  are  the  other  effects  ? 

3.  Why  prefer  quick-lime  to  carbonate  of  lime  T 

4.  Before  liming,  what  is  it  necessary  to  know? 

5.  On  what  generally  depends  the  quantity  of  lime  to  be  employed? 

6.  Which  soils  require  the  most  lime  ? 

7.  In  what  quantities  is  it  applied  ? 

8.  How  is  the  spreading  best  effected  ? 

9.  What  should  be  done  to  enable  lime  to  produce  an  immediate  effect  1 

10.  Is  a soil  in  a wet  situation  improved  by  liming? 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


LESSON  V. 

MARL  AS  AN  AMELIORATOR. 

29.  We  have  seen  (No.  42,  second  part),  that  marl  is 
a compound  of  carbonate  of  lime  mixed  with  clay,  silica, 
shells,  and  other  inorganic  substances,  in  various  propor- 
tions. The  quantity  of  calcareous  principles  that  a marl 
contains  has  a direct  influence  upon  its  use  as  an  amelio- 
rator, and  for  this  reason  it  has  been  thought  useful  to  dis- 
tinguish several  kinds  of  marl,  that  each  suit  soils  of  a 
different  nature. 

30.  The  principal  kinds  of  marl  are  : 1 . The  calcareous ; 
those  containing  the  most  carbonate  of  lime,  and  which 
are  consequently  the  richest.  2.  Marl  properly  so  called, 
that  does  not  contain  more  than  half  its  weight  in  calca- 
reous substances.  3.  Clayey  marl,  that  contains  three  or 
four  times  as  much  clay  as  marl.  4.  Marly  clay,  that 
contains  the  feeblest  portion  of  calcareous  carbonate.* 

31.  Marl  can  not  always  be  recognised  simply  by  the 
eye ; to  distinguish  it,  it  is  necessary  to  have  recourse  to 
the  means  indicated  in  treating  of  the  mineral  parts  of  the 
soil. 

32.  The  same  error  that  prevents  the  use  of  lime  also 
prevents  that  of  marl,  in  many  instances,  when  it  should 
be  used.  It  has  been  often  used  as  a manure,  when  it 
should  merely  be  considered  an  ameliorator.  Whenever 
lime  or  marl  is  used  upon  a soil  deficient  in  the  proper 
quantity  of  organic  remains,  sc  far  from  producing  any 
effect  upon  the  physical  properties  of  the  soil,  it  will  be 
apt  to  injure  by  giving  it  too  much  activity. 

33.  Marl,  by  its  beneficent  properties,  should  play  an 
important  part  in  the  agriculture  of  many  districts  in  the 


• There  ere  many  other  varieties  not  necessary  to  describe 


0 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


United  States,  particularly  along  the  seaboard,  and  in  the 
southwestern  states,  where  it  abounds  in  vast  beds  of  the 
finest  quality.  In  New  Jersey,  Delaware,  Maryland,  and 
Virginia,  exhausted  and  wornout  lands  have  been  brought 
to  the  highest  state  of  productiveness  by  abundant  marling. 
Its  great  abundance  and  richness,  in  the  now  wornout 
lands  along  the  tidewater  of  the  old  southern  states,  will 
yet  make  them  rival  the  virgin  fertility  of  the  western 
states,  and  perhaps  give  the  tide  of  emigration  a new  di- 
rection. Like  lime,  it  improves  alike  the  texture  of  sandy 
and  stiff  lands,  and  it  has  the  advantage  of  lime  in  being 
generally  cheaper. 

34.  Before  using  marl  as  an  ameliorator,  we  should 
know  how  to  discover  whether  a soil  contains  carbonate 
of  lime ; and  we  should  be  able  also  to  determine  the 
quantity  of  this  substance.  To  make  this  experiment  (and 
there  is  no  sort  of  difficulty  about  it),  a portion  of  the  soil 
to  be  tried  is  taken  at  a certain  depth,  and  not  on  the  im- 
mediate surface ; for  this  last  might,  independent  of  its 
primitive  composition,  contain  calcareous  substances, 
placed  there  at  some  period  more  or  less  remote. 

35.  The  following  is  the  very  simple  process  by  which 
the  proportion  of  calcareous  matter  contained  in  marl  is 
determined.  Take  a set  of  delicate  scales,  and  after  dry- 
ing, without  hardening,  one  hundred  grains  of  the  earth 
to  be  tried,  they  are  put  in  a vessel,  and  a sufficiency  of 
water  to  crumble  it  to  an  earthy  consistence  is  added. 
Upon  this  a few  drops  of  nitric  acid  are  thrown,  and  the 
mixture  is  worked  up  with  a wooden  spatula ; efferves- 
cence immediately  takes  place ; and  the  carbonic  acid  es- 
capes. This  last  is  replaced  by  the  nitric  acid,  which  then 
forms  a nitrate  of  lime.  As  this  body  has  the  property 
of  remaining  suspended  in  water,  it  is  expelled  by  several 
successive  washings ; taking  always  great  care  that  the 
other  earthy  particles  are  precipitated  to  the  bottom  of  the 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


71 


vessel.  After  this,  the  residuum  is  nothing  more  than 
clay  and  silica,  the  weight  of  which  is  easily  ascertained 
by  the  scales.  If  we  then  compare  it  with  the  original 
quantity  operated  on  (that  is,  the  hundred  grains),  the 
difference  will  be  the  exact  quantity  of  carbonate  of  lime 
contained  in  the  marl ; for  the  diminution  is  occasioned 
by  the  escape  of  the  carbonic  acid  gas,  besides  the  lime 
that  was  expelled  with  the  nitric  acid. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  Why  do  we  distinguish  several  kinds  of  marl  ? 

2.  Which  are  the  principal  kinds  of  marl  ? 

3.  Can  we  distinguish  marl  simply  by  the  eye  ? 

4.  Why  has  so  little  marl  been  employed  ? 

5.  What  is  the  effect  of  marl  applied  to  lands  that  do  not  contain  a suffi- 
ciency of  organic  remains  ? 

6.  What  is  the  effect  of  marl  on  the  fertility  of  lands  ? 

7.  Where  does  it  most  abound  in  the  United  States  ? 

8.  What  is  it  well  to  know  before  using  marl? 

9.  How  do  we  ascertain  the  quantity  of  carbonate  of  lime  contained  in  a 
soil? 

10.  What  advantage  does  marl  generally  possess  over  lime  ? 


LESSON  VI. 

MARL  AS  AN  AMELIORATOR  (CONTINUED). 

36.  In  the  preceding  lesson,  we  have  made  known  the 
different  species  of  marl,  and  also  the  means  of  distinguish- 
ing them.  The  question  now  to  be  examined  is,  to  which 
species  of  earth  is  each  kind  particularly  suited  ? 

37.  In  general,  as  marl  is  only  employed  on  account  of 
the  carbonate  of  lime  it  contains,  it  is  without  effect  upon 
calcareous  soils,  unless  the  object  is  an  amelioration  by 
clay.  The  action  of  the  farmer,  as  regards  the  ameliora- 
tion of  calcareous  as  well  as  other  soils,  depends  upon  the 
object  that  he  wishes  to  attain. 


72 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


38.  Calcareous  marl  is  that  which  agrees  best  with  clay 
soils.  Clayey  marl  and  marly  clay  are  best  suited  to 
gravelly  and  sandy  lands  ; but  the  great  quantity  that  it  is 
often  necessary  to  employ  in  this  case  leads  to  such  expense 
as  not  always  to  permit  the  farmer  to  make  such  ameliora- 
tions. 

39.  In  case  that  it  is  desired  to  employ  calcareous  sub- 
stances on  light  lands,  they  should  generally  be  used  in 
small  quantities ; for  these  soils  are  naturally  disposed  to 
dryness,  and  to  decompose  manures ; whereas,  as  we  have 
seen,  the  reverse  is  the  case  with  stiff  lands. 

40.  Marl  properly  so  called  suits,  as  it  were,  every  kind 
of  soil,  giving  porosity  to  the  clayey  and  compactness  to 
the  silicious. 

41.  Though  marl  is  adapted  to  the  amelioration  of  cer- 
tain soils,  it  does  not  follow  that  it  is  fertile  in  itself.  On 
the  contrary,  a soil  containing  too  much  of  it  would  pos- 
sess the  defects  of  lands  too  highly  calcareous,  and  it  could 
only  be  rendered  productive  by  unusual  quantities  of  ma- 
nure. 

42.  Marly  earths  favor  the  vegetation  of  certain  plants 
that  can  serve  as  indicators  to  the  farmer  in  search  of 
marl. 

43.  We  have  just  demonstrated  that  the  action  of  marl 
depended  upon  its  composition,  and  that  of  the  soils  to 
which  it  is  applied.  As  to  the  quantity  that  should  be 
employed,  it  is  subordinate  to  three  principal  circum- 
stances, namely:  1.  The  nature  of  the  soil.  2.  The  na.- 
ture  of  the  marl.  3.  The  durability  desired  for  the  ame- 
lioration. This  durability  depends  not  only  on  the  quan- 
tity of  the  marl  to  be  employed,  but  also  upon  its  richness. 
Generally,  from  twenty  to  sixty  double-horse  cart-loads 
are  used ; but  soils  on  which  marl  is  used  only  for  its  clay 
require  a much  larger  quantity. 

44.  That  marl  may  be  effective,  the  soil  must  not  be 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


73 


wet.  Though  calcareous  substances  correct  the  defects 
of  lands  that  retain  water,  it  is  when  these  defects  pro- 
ceed from  their  composition,  and  not  from  their  situation. 

45.  It  is  generally  in  autumn  that  marl  is  hauled  upon 
the  land,  because  then  it  becomes  rapidly  friable  from  the 
effects  of  rain  and  frost,  and  can  be  more  easily  and  evenly 
spread. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  Does  marl  agree  with  calcareous  soils  ? 

2.  What  species  of  marl  should  be  employed  on  calcareous  soils  ! 

& What  species  should  be  used  on  gravelly  and  sandy  lands  ? 

4.  Should  marl  be  used  in  large  quantities  on  light  lands  ? 

5.  To  what  soil  is  marl,  properly  so  called,  best  adapted  ? 

6.  Is  a marly  soil  fertile  in  itself  ? 

7.  Are  there  certain  plants  that  by  their  presence  indicate  the  existence 
of  marl  ? 

8.  On  what  does  the  action  of  marl  depend  1 

9.  On  what  does  the  quantity  of  marl  to  be  employed  depend  ! 

10.  Doe*  marl  improve  wet  lands  ? 

11.  At  what  time  is  marl  usually  hauled  outl 


LESSON  VII. 

CLAY  AND  SAND  AS  AMELIORATORS. 

46.  It  is  important  here  to  correct  an  error  frequently 
met  with  in  works  that  treat  of  the  improvement  of  the 
soil.  Almost  all  of  them  recommend  clay  as  an  amelio- 
rator of  sandy  soils,  and  sand  for  clay  soils.  Here  again 
practice  is  in  contradiction  to  theory,  and  has  proved  that 
clay  and  sand  can  not  serve  as  ameliorators  one  to  the 
other,  as  they  will  not  combine ; or  at  least  they  do  so 
with  great  difficulty. 

47.  Let  us  examine  the  effect  that  each  of  these  bodies 
is  destined  to  produce  upon  the  different  soils.  Sand 
ought  to  act  upon  soils  in  which  clav  predominates ; fo i 

7 


74 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


these  soils,  being  generally  too  compact,  and  consequently 
too  hard,  require  the  application  of  substances  tending  to 
lighten  them ; and  sand,  as  we  know,  possesses  this  prop- 
erty in  a high  degree,  when  it  enters  in  a sensible  propor- 
tion into  the  composition  of  a soil.  But  to  produce  this 
effect,  it  must  be  combined  with  the  other  elements  of  the 
soil ; for  where  it  is  merely  mixed  with  the  soil,  it  does  not 
loosen  it. 

48.  In  fact,  the  experiments  that  have  been  made  with 
sand  prove  that  it  has  a constant  tendency  to  descend 
through  the  arable  surface,  and  that  it  reaches  the  sub-soil 
without  having  acted.  It  does  not  enter  into  the  mole- 
cules of  clay  to  form  but  a single  body  with  them  ; it  does 
not  then  prevent  these  molecules  from  remaining  agglom- 
erated among  themselves  ; and  consequently  it  loosens  very 
little,  if  any,  stiff  clay  soils. 

49.  But  suppose  even  that  the  mixture  of  sand  and  clay 
was  advantageous,  this  means  of  amelioration  would  be 
impracticable,  on  account  of  the  immense  quantity  of  sand 
required,  and  that  it  would  be  necessary  often  to  renew, 
from  its  tendency  to  sink  to  the  sub-soil. 

50.  It  is  only  where  a clay  soil  is  based  upon  a sandy 
sub-soil,  that  it  would  be  advisable  to  seek  to  mix  the  last 
with  the  first,  by  means  of  deep  ploughing  ; and  this 
should  be  done  gradually,  by  setting  the  plough  deeper 
each  time  the  field  is  worked.  The  increase  in  depth 
should  be  gradual,  in  order  to  give  the  mineral  parts  of 
the  soil  and  sub-soil  time  to  adhere  and  combine,  as  it 
were,  among  themselves. 

51.  Another  means  of  ameliorating  clay  soils  is  to  sub- 
mit the  superficial  crust  of  the  arable  layer  to  the  action 
of  fire.  Panicles  of  the  clay  are  hardened  by  the  heat, 
and  produce  the  same  effect  as  gravel  and  sand.  But  this 
method  of  loosening  the  land  is  liable  to  the  same  objec- 
tion as  that  by  means  of  sand  ; the  calcined  particles  being 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


75 


harder  than  the  rest  of  the  clay,  are  finally  separated  from 
it,  and  pass  into  the  sub-soil.  It  has,  however,  the  advan- 
tage of  sand  in  being  cheaper.  (We  will  explain  the  pro- 
cess of  calcination  under  the  head  Paring  and  Burning.) 

52.  Ploughing  at  the  proper  season,  the  application  of 
lime,  and  a sufficient  quantity  of  manure,  are  the  best 
means  of  ameliorating  stiff  soils.  As  the  action  of  frost 
usually  renders  these  lands  more  friable,  they  should  be 
broken  up  in  the  autumn. 

53.  The  same  reasons  that  prevent  the  improvement  of 
stiff  lands  by  means  of  sand,  hold  good  against  the  im- 
provement of  sandy  lands  by  the  use  of  clay.  There  are, 
however,  but  few  cases  in  which  the  improvement  of 
purely  gravel  or  sandy  lands  will  pay  at  all. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  Can  sand  and  clay  serve  as  mutual  improvers  ? 

2.  Why  is  it  that  sand  does  not  render  stiff  lands  more  friable? 

3.  What  other  reason  is  there  for  not  using  sand  as  an  improver  of  stiff 
soils  ? 

4.  In  what  cases  would  it  be  proper  to  mix  sand  and  clay  ? 

5.  Is  there  not  another  method  of  improving  stiff  soils  ? 

6.  What  are  the  best  means  to  improve  stiff  land  ? 

7.  Why  should  not  gravelly  and  sandy  lands  be  improved  by  the  applies 
tion  of  clay  t 


76 


ELEMENTS  6t  AOtttCtTLTt TtS. 


CHAPTER  II. 

Stimulants . 

LESSON  IX. 

ASHES. 

54.  Ameliorators,  as  we  have  seen,  do  not  exercise  a 
direct  influence  on  vegetation  ; they  are  generally  destined 
to  modify  the  nature  of  the  soil,  by  rendering  it  lighter  or 
more  compact  (see  Nos.  6 and  7).  There  are  other  sub- 
stances again  which,  without  modifying  in  most  cases  the 
texture  of  the  soil,  exercise  a direct  influence  on  vegeta- 
tion, by  exciting  the  organs  of  plants  to  draw  a greater 
quantity  of  food  than  they  otherwise  would  from  the  soil 
and  the  atmosphere.  These  substances  are  called  stimu- 
lants. 

55.  Sometimes  a stimulant  has  also  the  property  of 
modifying  the  texture  of  a soil ; in  this  case  it  may  be 
called  a stimulating  ameliorator . Some  kinds  of  ashes 
come  under  this  head ; and  it  is  for  this  reason  that  we 
treat  of  them  immediately  after  the  ameliorators. 

56.  We  give  the  name  of  ashes  to  the  residuum  left  by 
the  combustion  of  organic  substances  of  vegetable  or  ani- 
mal origin.  The  efficacy  of  these  ashes  depends,  in  a great 
measure,  on  the  elements  of  which  they  are  composed. 
The  principal  kinds  employed  are  wood,  turf,  and  coal 
ashes. 

57.  Wood  ashes  are  the  most  valuable,  and  more  gener- 
ally used.  They  are  formed  of  salts,  of  earths,  and  metal- 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


77 


lie  oxydes.*  The  smaller  the  quantity  of  earths  and  oxydes 
contained  in  ashes,  the  greater  is  their  value.  Slaked 
ashes  produce  a better  effect  than  the  unslaked. 

58.  There  is  a great  analogy  in  the  action  of  ashes  and 
lime.  Like  lime,  they  are  best  upon  soils  that  are  not 
calcareous,  and  upon  those  on  which  the  carbonate  of  lime 
is  the  most  effective.  They  loosen  and  increase  the  fer- 
tility of  compact  soils ; but  it  is  only  in  favorable  situa- 
tions, in  the  vicinity  of  cities,  that  they  can  be  procured 
in  sufficient  quantity  for  this  purpose.  But  in  all  cases 
they  must  be  well  spread. 

59.  Ashes  appear  to  agree  better  with  well-drained 
moist  lands  than  with  those  that  are  naturally  dry.  As  is 
the  case  with  calcareous  ameliorators,  j^ey  should  never 
be  considered  as  manures ; for  they,  on  the  contrary,  hasten 
the  exhaustion  of  the  soil,  by  forcing  the  plants  to  take 
from  it  a greater  quantity  of  nourishment. 

60.  Ashes  are  exceedingly  beneficial  to  almost  all  crops ; 
and  in  the  vicinity  of  cities  they  are  eagerly  sought  after, 
and  used  to  an  extent  only  limited  by  the  supply. 

61.  Ashes  are  very  generally  recommended  to  amelio- 
rate meadow-lands,  applied  to  which,  they  enable  the 
better  grasses  to  compete  successfully  with  moss,  rushes, 
and  other  noxious  plants.  This  is,  however,  not  always 
the  case. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  the  difference  between  ameliorators  and  stimulants  t 

2.  What  is  a stimulating  ameliorator  ? 

3.  On  what  does  the  efficacy  of  ashes  depend  I 

4.  From  what  are  ashes  principally  made  ? 

5.  Of  what  are  ashes  composed? 

6.  On  what  does  their  value  depend  ? 

* The  salts  contained  in  ashes  are,  the  carbonate  of  lime,  the  carbonate, 
the  sulphate,  and  hydrochloride  of  potash.  The  earths  are,  silex,  alumina, 
and  magnesia.  The  metallic  oxydes  are,  iron,  and  manganese. 


78 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


7.  Upon  what  Boils  are  aahls  of  the  most  value  T 

8.  With  what  kind  of  land  do  they  best  agree  T 

9.  Should  they  be  used  as  manures  1 

10.  What  is  the  effect  of  ashes  applied  to  meadow-land  t 


LESSON  IX. 

PLASTER. 

62.  Plaster,  as  we  have  seen,  is  composed  of  sulphuric 
acid  and  lime.  It  is  also  called  gypsum;  but  this  last 
name  is  that  by  which  the  stone  or  rock  is  designated,  be- 
fore it  is  ground  into  plaster. 

63.  The  manner  in  which  plaster  acts,  and  its  value, 
have  long  been  subjects  of  controversy  among  agricultural 
chemists ; some  contending  that  it  serves  as  a direct  food 
to  certain  plants  (Johnson),  others  that  its  utility  consists 
in  its  power  of  absorbing  the  gases,  and  holding  them  in 
contact  with  the  roots  of  vegetables  (Liebig). 

64.  It  is  sufficient,  however,  to  state  here,  that  it  is  a 
forcible  stimulant  to  many  cultivated  crops,  quickening,  in 
a remarkable  degree,  the  vital  energies  of  plants. 

65.  On  some  soils  the  action  of  plaster  is  scarcely  per- 
ceptible ; but  as  it  is  a cheap  substance,  and  of  easy  trans- 
portation and  application,  it  should  always  be  tried.  Pro- 
fessor Johnson  has  ascertained,  by  analysis,  that  an  ordi- 
nary crop  of  clover  or  sainfoin  will  yield  per  acre  from 
one  and  a half  to  two  hundred  weight  of  sulphate  of  lime. 
This  is  precisely  the  quantity  usually  applied  per  acre  in 
those  parts  of  the  country  where  plaster  is  in  most  genera, 
use. 

66.  Plaster  should  be  sown  broadcast  in  calm  weather, 
when  the  dew  is  still  upon  the  grass,  at  the  rate  of  a bushel 
to  the  acre. 

67.  Plaster  seems  to  act  most  readily  upon  corn,  clover, 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


79 


peas,  tobacco,  etc.  It  has  'been  recommended  to  whiten 
the  floors  of  stables,  to  prevent  the  escape  of  the  ammonia 
from  the  urine  and  manure. 

68.  The  application  of  plaster  to  timothy  meadows  is 
of  doubtful  utility,  as  it  encourages  the  growth  of  the  clo- 
vers at  the  expense  of  the  other  grasses. 

69.  Plaster  must  not  be  confounded  with  other  calca- 
reous ameliorators.  These  last  act  upon  the  soil  by  ren- 
dering it  fit  for  any  crop,  whereas  plaster  in  no  way 
changes  the  nature  of  the  soil. 

QUESTIONS. 

X.  What  is  piaster  ? 

2.  How  should  it  be  applied  J 

3.  What  quantity  to  the  acre  ? 

4.  Why  is  it  of  4oubtful  utility  on  timothy  meadows  ! 


LESSON  X. 

PARING  AND  BURNING. 

70.  As  yet,  this  is  a means  of’  amelioration  little  used 
m the  United  States.  Its  effects  are  very  similar  to  those 
of  calcareous  substances,  and  in  some  localities  it  may  be 
less  expensive. 

71.  The  object  of  this  process  is  to  render  active  all 
inert  organic  substances ; it  will  consequently  be  of  little 
use  on  lands  containing  but  little  vegetable  matter. 

72.  The  operation  of  paring  is  usually  done  in  dry 
weather,  in  spring  or  summer.  The  surface  or  sod  is 
turned  up  with  the  spade  or  plough,  to  the  depth  of  three 
inches ; the  sods  are  then  set  on  edge  to  dry,  and  when 
dry  are  disposed  in  heaps,  in  a shape  favorable  to  combus- 
tion. Dry  brush  is  then  put  under  them,  and  slow  fires 
kept  up,  until  the  whole  are  reduced  to  ashes. 


80 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


73.  There  are  very  few  processes  more  beneficial  to  old 
meadows  than  this,  as  it  destroys  thoroughly  all  noxious 
plants,  and  vast  quantities  of  insects.  A good  dressing  of 
manure  should  follow  this  operation  in  the  second  year,  on 
account  of  the  stimulating  effects  of  the  operation  on  vege- 
tation. 


QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  are  the  effects  of  paring  and  burning  ? 

2.  What  is  the  object  to  be  attained  ? 

3.  When  and  how  is  the  operation  performed  ? 

4.  Why  is  it  advisable  to  apply  a dressing  of  manure  a year  after  the 
process! 


ELEMENTS  OE  AGRICULTURE. 


81 


CHAPTER  III. 

Manures . 

LESSON  XI, 

FORMATION,  COMPOSITION,  AND  ACTION  OF  MANURES. 

74.  All  substances,  both  liquid  and  solid,  of  vegetable 
or  animal  origin,  that  by  their  decomposition  fertilize  the 
earth  by  serving  as  food  for  plants,  are  called  manures. 
Tims,  a crop  of  clover  turned  in  by  the  plough,  as  it  de- 
composes, furnishes  a supply  of  manure  of  vegetable 
origin.  The  remains  of  dead  animals,  on  the  other  hand, 
furnish  manure  of  animal  origin. 

75.  Manures  may  be  divided  into  several  classes:  1. 
Ordinary  manure,  a mixture  of  animal  and  vegetable  sub- 
stances. 2.  Animal  manure,  strictly  of  animal  origin.  3 
Vegetable  manures,  as  green  crops  turned  under,  straw,  etc. 

76.  The  value  of  manures  depends  upon  their  nature. 
Those  of  animal  origin  are  usually  exceedingly  active,  and 
of  little  duration.  Among  vegetable  substances,  those 
most  valuable  as  food  are  also  most  valuable  as  manure. 

77.  The  continual  application  of  purely  vegetable  ma- 
nures will  not  bring  land  up  to  the  highest  degree  of  fer- 
tility. They  must  be  aided  by  animal  manures,  which, 
by  means  of  the  azote  which  they  contain,  exercise  upon 
the  soil  a peculiar  influence. 

78.  Though  in  general  the  development  of  plants  is 
greatly  favored  by  the  application  of  manures,  yet  there 
are  cases  in  which  they  will  do  more  harm  than  good,  if 
great  attention  is  not  paid  to  their  condition  and  mode  of 


82 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


application.  Thus,  the  liquid  manure  from  the  stable  may 
burn  the  plants  to  which  it  is  applied,  if  it  has  not  been 
fermented  and  mixed  with  a due  proportion  of  water. 

79.  Other  manures  again,  though  beneficial  to  the  growth 
of  plants,  are  often  injurious  by  introducing  and  encour- 
aging the  growth  of  weeds  that  are  afterward  found  diffi- 
cult to  extirpate.  This  is  more  commonly  the  case  with 
unfermented  manures. 

80.  The  vast  importance  of  manure  to  the  farmer  is  too 
generally  acknowledged  to  make  it  necessary  here  to  argue 
the  question.  The  profits  of  the  farmer  depend  upon  the 
quantity  of  manure  that  he  applies  to  his  crops.  It  is  very 
evident  that  the  amount  of  labor  required  to  produce  a 
crop  is  the  same  for  poor  as  for  rich  land ; and  yet  what  a 
difference  in  the  yield  ! 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  manure  7 

2.  How  may  manures  be  classed  7 

3.  Are  they  of  equal  value  ? 

4.  What  are  the  most  valuable  vegetable  manures  7 

5.  Will  vegetable  manures  alone  give  to  the  soil  the  highest  degree  of  fer« 
tiiity  ? 

6.  How  are  manures  sometimes  injurious  7 

7.  On  what  do  the  profits  of  the  farmer  principally  depend  t 


LESSON  XII. 

MANURE  (CONTINUED). 

81.  Manure  is  a mixture  of  the  excrements  of  cattle 
with  stable-litter.  This  is  the  most  important  species  of 
manure  to  the  farmer,  as  it  is  generally  that  which  he  can 
manufacture  most  easily. 

82.  To  enable  himself  to  make  the  necessary  quantity 
of  manure,  the  farmer  should  keep  a quantity  of  stock  pro- 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


83 


portionate  to  the  size  of  his  farm.  In  this  respect,  how- 
ever, it  is  difficult  to  lay  down  any  general  rule,  and  say 
that  so  many  acres  require  so  many  cattle ; because  the 
quantity  of  stock  that  a given  quantity  of  land  will  support 
depends  as  much  upon  the  quality  of  the  land,  and  local 
causes,  as  upon  the  number  of  acres. 

83.  In  the  production  of  manure,  the  quantity  of  stock 
is  not  the  only  thing  to  be  studied ; all  the  animals  on  a 
farm  should  not  only  be  fed,  but  well  fed  ; and  the  quan- 
tity of  food  that  they  will  require  depends  upon  their  size 
and  species.  Besides,  when  the  manure  is  thrown  out  in 
heaps  from  the  stable,  its  value  may  be  greatly  affected  by 
its  management. 

84.  The  excrements  of  animals  are  not  entirely  com- 
posed of  the  residuum  of  the  food  that  has  passed  through 
them ; they  contain  also  certain  particles  belonging  to  the 
bodies  of  the  animals.  These  particles  are,  in  greater  or 
less  quantity,  dependent  on  the  fatness  of  the  animal ; 
when  the  beast  is  poor,  there  will  be  fewer  of  these  ani- 
malized  particles  that  increase  the  value  of  the  manure. 

85.  Hence  we  may  easily  understand  the  great  differ- 
ence in  the  value  of  manures  accruing  from  well-kept 
cattle,  and  those  that  are  barely  kept  alive.  If  the  farmer 
contents  himself  with  feeding  his  cattle  on  substances  of 
difficult  decomposition,  and  containing  but  little  nourish- 
ment — as,  for  instance,  straw  — this  food  will  pass  through 
their  bodies  without  undergoing  any  great  change,  and 
without  being  animalized,  in  consequence  of  the  leanness 
of  the  beast,  brought  about  by  such  a diet. 

86.  If  the  quality  of  the  food  affects  the  quality  of  the 
manure,  so  does  the  manner  of  keeping  cattle  affect  its 
quantity.  Cattle  are  usually  kept  in  two  ways ; at  large 
in  pastures,  or  in  stables.  This  last  method,  if  possible, 
should  be  preferred;  of  course,  allowing  the  animals  to 
run  out  sufficiently  for  exercise.  Sheep  are,  however,  an 


84 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


exception  to  this  rule,  as  they  thrive  much  better  in  pas- 
tures. 

87.  When  animals  are  pastured,  there  is  a great  loss  of 
manure.  Without  taking  into  account  the  manure  lost, 
the  pasture  suffers  much  in  wet  weather  from  the  poaching 
of  the  hoof.  It  is  generally  thought  that  those  meadows 
yield  most  on  which  the  afterswath  (that  is,  the  grass  that 
grows  after  the  crop  of  hay  is  made)  is  never  depastured. 
Those  farmers  that  keep  their  cattle  up  (soil  them)  con- 
tend that  they  get  four  or  five  times  as  much  manure  as 
they  do  when  the  animals  are  grazed  ; but  the  advantages 
of  soiling  often  depends  upon  local  circumstances,  climate, 
price  of  labor,  etc. 


QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  manure  ? 

2.  What  must  the  farmer  do  to  obtain  the  necessary  supplies  of  manure  t 

3.  Can  fixed  rules  be  established  on  this  head  ? 

4.  Do  excrements  contain  anything  more  than  the  remains  of  food  ? 

5.  What  causes  the  difference  in  value  between  the  manure  from  fat  and 
that  from  lean  cattle  ? 

6.  Does  the  manner  of  keeping  stock  affect  the  quality  of  manure  ? 

7.  What  are  the  usual  methods  of  keeping  stock  ? 

8.  Which  is  to  be  preferred  ? 

9.  What  are  the  objections  to  grazing  ? 


LESSON  XIII. 

LITTER,  AND  LIQUID  MANURES. 

88.  Litter  is,  in  many  ways,  indispensable  to  the 
farmer ; it  is  indispensable  to  the  health  and  comfort  of  his 
stock,  by  affording  them  good  warm  beds  in  winter,  and 
maintaining  them  in  a proper  degree  of  cleanliness. 
Again,  as  regards  the  formation  of  manure,  it  is  of  the 
utmost  importance ; it  not  only  moderates  the  activity  that 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE.  85 

in  pure  dung  is  too  great  for  some  soils,  but  it  renders  the 
hauling  and  spreading  of  the  manure  much  easier. 

89.  Those  vegetable  substances  most  generally  used  as 
litter  are  straw,  leaves,  weeds,  etc.  But  straw  is  usually 
preferred,  as  it  is  a better  absorbent  of  the  liquids,  and  is 
more  readily  decomposed. 

90.  The  value  of  manure  diminishes  m proportion  to 
the  quantity  of  litter  employed  after  we  reach  a certain 
point ; but  still  it  is  best  to  use  it  with  a liberal  hand. 

91.  Urine  is  the  most  valuable  portion  of  manure,  and 
should  always  be  saved  with  the  utmost  care.  It  should 
never  be  applied  in  a pure  state,  as  its  great  activity  would 
be  hurtful  to  vegetation. 

QUESTIONS. 

L Why  is  litter  of  importance  to  the  farmer  ? 

2.  What  vegetable  substances  are  usually  employed  a9  litter  l 

3.  Why  is  straw  preferred  ? 

4.  Does  the  quantity  of  litter  add  to  the  value  of  manure  1 

5.  Is  the  urine  of  value  ? 

6.  Should  liquid  manures  be  used  in  a pure  state  ? 


LESSON  XIV. 

MANAGEMENT  OF  MANURE. 

92.  The  manure  should  be  drawn  from  under  the  cattle 
every  day.  This  certainly  should  be  done  with  horses ; 
as  to  fattening  cattle,  some  feeders  pretend  that  they 
fatten  more  kindly  when  surrounded  with  a warm  atmo- 
sphere, filled  with  vapor.  A warm  atmosphere  is  no  doubt 
good,  but  it  should  be  pure. 

93.  It  is  not  usual  to  haul  manure  immediately  from  the 
stable  to  the  field ; in  the  meantime,  the  care  that  is  taken 
of  it,  or  its  management,  has  great  influence  on  its  quan- 
tity and  value. 


86 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


94.  The  manure-heap  should  be  made  on  a spot  conve* 
nient  to  the  stable s and  cow-sheds ; and  space  should  be 
prepared,  in  the  form  of  a dish  or  saucer,  of  a size  propor- 
tioned to  the  quantity  of  stock  kept  — so  situated  as  to 
catch  the  drainage  of  the  stables,  and  protected  as  much 
as  possible  from  the  access  of  rain-water.  This  basin 
should  be  made  impervious  to  water,  if  possible,  to  pre- 
vent the  loss  by  infiltration  of  the  liquid  manure.  In  the 
centre  a short  pump  is  often  placed,  to  enable  the  farmer 
to  get  at  any  time  a supply  of  the  liquid,  either  for  moisten- 
ing the  manure-heap  when  too  dry,  or  for  spreading  on 
his  crops. 

95.  The  length  of  time  that  manure  remains  in  the  heap 
before  decomposition  takes  place,  depends  upon  the  spe- 
cies of  animal  that  produces  it.  That  from  hogs  enters 
more  slowly  into  fermentation  than  that  of  horned  cattle. 
The  manure  from  horses  and  sheep  decomposes  soonest. 
To  avoid  loss  by  evaporation,  it  is  recommended  to  sprin- 
kle the  heap  two  or  three  times  a week  with  such  sub- 
stances as  plaster,  to  fix  all  the  volatile  principles. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  When  should  the  manure  be  thrown  out  of  the  stable  ? 

2.  Is  it  as  important  to  clean  out  the  cow-shed  every  day  as  it  is  to  cleanse 
the  liorse-stable  1 

3.  How  is  the  manure  to  be  managed  1 

4.  How  is  the  cattle-yard  made  1 

5.  Which  of  the  manures  decomposes  most  rapidly  ? 

6.  Which  decomposes  most  slowly  ? 

7.  Why  should  plaster  be  sprinkled  on  the  manure-heap? 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


87 


LESSON  XV. 

VARIETIES  OF  MANURE. 

96.  There  is  very  little  distinction  made  in  farming 
between  the  different  kinds  of  manure ; the  employment 
of  special  manures  is  not  as  yet  practised  on  a large  scale 
in  this  country.  The  value  of  manures  depends  upon  the 
quality  of  the  food  that  the  stock  consumes,  and  upon  the 
care  that  is  taken  of  them.  It  may  be  useful,  however, 
to  say  a few  words  upon  each  particular  kind. 

97.  Manures  may  be  divided  into  five  principal  classes  : 
that  from  horses,  that  from  sheep,  that  from  cattle,  that 
from  hogs,  and  that  from  poultry. 

98.  Horse-manure  is  very  active  and  ferments  very 
readily.  It  is  used  by  gardeners  for  hot-beds.  It  acts  best 
upon  clay  soils  ; but  its  effects  are  not  permanent. 

99.  Sheep-manure,  when  kept  moist,  ferments  rapidly, 
and  is  of  more  value  than  horse-manure. 

100.  Cattle-manure  does  not  decompose  as  rapidly  as 
the  preceding.  It  suits  light  lands  better,  and  though  less 
energetic,  is  more  durable  in  its  effects. 

101.  Hog-manure  is  usually  very  valuable;  but  the 
value  is  dependent  on  the  quality  of  their  food. 

102.  The  sweepings  of  poultry- houses  make  a capital 
manure ; dried  and  reduced  to  powder,  they  make  a good 
top-dressing  to  all  crops. 

103.  It  is  important  that  manures  should  undergo  a de- 
gree of  fermentation  before  being  hauled  out,  as  the  seeds 
of  weeds  contained  in  it  are  thereby  destroyed.  As  a gen- 
eral rule,  barn- yard  manure  is  given  to  the  hoed  crops  that 
precede  the  small  grains ; the  quantity  depends  upon  a 
variety  of  circumstances  — the  nature  of  the  soil,  the  crop 
to  be  planted,  etc. 

104.  There  are  four  modes  of  applying  manures ; in  the 


I 


S3 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRIWia  JPVRE. 


hill,  the  drill,  ploughing  under,  and  top-dressing.  This 
last  is  the  only  one  that  can  be  applied  to  meadows. 

105.  Manure  should  be  spread  upon  the  l-and  as  soon  as 
possible  after  it  is  drawn  out ; when  left  in  piles  upon  the 
field,  if  a rain  should  come,  the  strength  of  the  manure  is 
washed  out,  and  the  crops  would  lodge  in  the  spots  occu- 
pied by  the  heaps  of  manure,  and  receive  little  benefit  in 
other  places. 

106.  Liquid  manures  are  applied  by  means  of  a hogs- 
head on  wheels,  similar  to  those  used  in  watering  the 
streets  of  cities;  and  are  generally  used  on  mowing- 
grounds. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  Is  there  any  great  distinction  made  in  general  farming  between  the 
different  manures  1 

2.  On  what,  in  general,  does  the  value  of  manure  depend  T 

3.  How  may  the  different  kinds  of  manure  be  divided  ? 

4;.  What  are  the  peculiarities  of  horse-manure’? 

5.  What  is  peculiar  in  sheep-manure  1 

6.  What  in  that  of  cattle  1 

7.  What  in  that  of  hogs  and  poultry  1 

8.  Ought  manure  to  be  hauled  out  fresh,  or  decomposed  T 

9.  Ought  the  manure  to  lie  in  heaps  for  a long  time,  in  the  field,  before 
being  spread  ? 

10.  How  is  liquid  manure  carried  out  ? 

11.  On  what  is  it  generally  used  ? 


LESSON  XVI. 

FOLDING  SHEEP — ANIMALIZED  MANURES. 

107.  The  folding  of  sheep,  though  not  much  practised 
with  us,  is  very  general  in  some  countries,  and  is  attended 
with  many  advantages.  The  system  is  best  adapted  to 
light,  sandy  lands,  and  to  places  of  difficult  access  to  the 
manure-carts. 


ELEMENTS  0 E AGRICULTURE. 


89 


108.  The  fold  is  usually  made  with  netting  or  light 
scantling,  so  arranged  as  to  be  easily  taken  apart.  The 
form  is  square.  The  sheep  are  driven  in  every  night,  and 
the  fold  is  removed  when  the  ground  occupied  by  it  is 
sufficiently  manured. 

109.  Among  animal  manures,  we  may  mention  flesh, 
blood,  bones,  horn,  poudrette,  etc.,  as  all  being  exceed- 
ingly valuable. 

110.  When  a horse,  or  a cow,  or  a sheep,  dies  upon  the 
farm,  it  should  never  be  left  to  taint  the  air  by  its  decay. 
It  should  be  covered  with  mild  lime,  and  then  a heap 
of  earth  thrown  over  it,  of  some  eight  or  ten  times 
its  own  bulk.  This  earth  becomes  saturated  with  the 
fertilizing  gases,  and  furnishes  a load  or  two  of  manure, 
well  worth  the  trouble  of  making. 

111.  Bones  have  been  known  and  used  as  a manure  for 
a long  time  past ; and  on  the  lighter  soils,  to  which  they 
are  adapted,  they  constitute  the  most  valuable  auxiliary 
fertilizing  substance  that  has  yet  been  discovered.  The 
bones  are  reduced,  in  a proper  machine,  to  the  size  of  half 
an  inch,  and  strewed  upon  the  land,  at  the  rate  of  twenty 
bushels  to  the  acre.  The  effect  on  favorable  soils  is  great 
and  lasting  ; and  they  succeed  best  on  all  light  lands,  on 
limestone  soils,  and  on  the  lighter  loams.  On  all  wet 
lands,  whether  clays,  damp  loams,  or  moist  gravels,  they 
do  not  pay.  The  inference  from  this  is,  that  bones  are 
best  suited  for  dry  seasons  and  climates .* 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  When  is  the  sheep-folding  system  advantageous  1 

2.  How  is  it  done  1 

3.  Mention  the  animal  manures. 

4.  How  can  the  carcasses  of  dead  animals  be  turned  to  account  ? 

5.  What  is  said  of  bones  as  a manure  ? 

* In  the  face  of  these  facts,  it  would  be  incredible,  were  it  not  ft  matte® 
of  record  at  the  customhouse,  that  people  of  the  proverbia.  acuteness 
8* 


90 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


LESSON  XVII. 

VEGETABLE  MANURES. 

112.  The  ploughing  down  and  covering  in  the  .land  of  the 
crops  of  green,  juicy  plants,  to  act  as  manure,  was  a practice 
of  the  ancient  Romans,  and  is  yet  followed  in  Italy,  and 
other  parts  of  the  old  world.  This  mode  of  fertilizing 
suits  best  in  the  warmer  climates,  where  vegetation  is 
rapid  and  luxuriant.  The  plants  used  for  the  purpose  are 
of  the  leguminous  kinds,  clover,  pease,  buckwheat,  etc. 

113.  Green  manures  are  often  more  costly  than  is  gen- 
erally supposed.  This  is  proved  by  deducting  from  their 
value,  1.  The  price  of  seed.  2.  The  cost  of  sowing,  and 
the  rent  of  the  land  for  six  months.  We  must  infer  from 
this,  that  this  system  is  only  profitable  in  the  following 
cases : 1.  When  the  lands  are  inaccessible  to  carts,  or  very 
remote  from  the  farm-yard.  2.  When  other  manures  are 
not  to  be  had,  except  at  extravagant  prices.  3.  When 
there  is  a want  of  straw,  or  other  litter,  to  make  manure. 

114.  The  choice  of  the  plants  to  be  turned  in  must  de- 
pend, in  a great  measure,  upon  climate.  Thus,  in  the 
northern  states  clover  flourishes ; whereas,  in  the  south 
the  pea,  in  different  varieties,  is  substituted  for  it.  The 
south  has  doubtless  many  valuable  acquisitions  yet  to 
make  from  Europe,  in  the  way  of  herbaceous  plants  to  be 
used  both  as  fodder  and  as  green  manure. 

115.  The  proper  moment  to  turn  in  all  plants  that  are 
used  for  this  purpose,  is  at  the  time  of  blooming ; for,  as 
maturity  approaches,  all  the  nutritive  principles,  distrib- 
uted in  the  different  organs,  combine  to  nourish  the  oviary 
and  form  the  seed.  This  last  then  seizes  upon  nearly  all 

of  the  New-Englanders,  should  suffer  cargoes  of  bones  to  leave  Boston,  to 
enrich  the  fields  of  a foreign  and  a rival  nation. 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE, 


91 


the  elements  of  nutrition  that  the  plant  contains ; and,  if 
we  delay  until  it  is  completely  formed,  the  value  of  the 
manure  is  lost. 


QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  are  green  manures  ? 

2.  What  climates  is  the  system  best  suited  to  T 

3.  Are  green  manures  costly? 

4.  How  are  we  to  calculate  the  expense  ? 

5.  What  plants  are  used  as  green  manures? 

6.  How  are  we  guided  in  the  choice  of  plants  to  be  used  for  this  purpose? 
7 At  what  time  should  the  plants  be  turned  under? 


■ 


THE 


AMERICAN  BIRD  FANCIER 


CONSIDERED  WITH 

REFERENCE  TO  THE  BREEDING,  REARING,  FEEDING, 
MANAGEMENT,  AND  PECULIARITIES 

OK 

CAGE  AND  HOUSE  BIRDS; 

WITH  REMARKS  ON  THEIR 

DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES; 

DRAWN  FROM  AUTHENTIC  SOURCES  AND  PERSONAL  OBSERVATION. 

BY  D.  J.  BROWNE, 

AUTHOR  OF  THE  8YLVA  AMERICANA,  THE  AMERICAN  POULTRY  YARD, 

ETC.,  ETC. 


Illustrated  with  Engravings. 


Nero  SJork: 

PUBLISHED  BY  C.  M.  SAXTON. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1850,  by 
CHARLES  >1.  SAXTON, 

In  the  Clerk’s  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the  Southern 
District  of  New  York. 


Turney  4*  Bro's  Stereotype , 
16  Spruce  St,*  JYcw  jerk* 


INDEX 


<§31 

f - 


PAGES. 

Birds,  Breeding  of  16 

Food  of 11 

Habitation  of 9 

Song  of 8 

Young  of,  Time  for  Removing 

from  the  Nest 16 

Blackbird,  European  70 

Skunk 73 

Bob-o-link 73 

Bunting,  Rice 73 

Butter  Bird v 73 

Canary  Bird 26 

Cat  Bird G7 

Diseases  of  Tame  Birds 16,  39,  50,  59,  72 

Asthma 17 

Atrophy,  or  Wasting 19 

Bloody  Flux 20 

Consumption 19 

Costiveness 20 

Diarrhoea 20 

Epilepsy 21 

Moulting 23 

Obstruction  of  the  Rump  Gland  21 

of  the  Feet 22 

Pairing  Fever 24 

Parasitic  Vermin 4 

Pip,  or  Thrush 17 

Rheum 17 

Sore  Eyes  23 

Tumors  and  Ulcers 23 

Tympany,  or  Bloating 22 

Unnatural  Fatness 25 

Vertigo,  or  Giddiness 24 

Dove,  Wild  81 

Goldfinch. . 41 

American 51 

Linnet 46 


fAGES. 


Mavy,  Red  65 

Meadow  Bird 65 

Mocking  Bird CO 

French 65 

Pigeon,  Barb 94 

Biset  85 

Broad  or  Fan-tailed  Shaker. ...  81 

Capuchin 93 

Carrier 88 

Dragoon  92 

Helmet 96 

Horseman 89 

Jacobin,  or  Jack 92 

Mawmet,  or  Mahomet 93 

Nun 95 

Pouter GO 

Rock 81 

Tumblers 86 

Tu  rbit 94 

White-rumped 81 

Quail,  European 104 

Raven 77 

Red  Pole 46 

Reed  Bird 73 

Rice  Bird 73 

Bunting 73 

Troopial 73 

Robin,  American 54 

Redbreast 54 

Thrasher 65 

Thrush,  Brown 65 

Ferruginous 65 

Migrating 54 

Red-breasted 54 

Song 57 

Thistle  Finch 41 

I Yellow  Bird 51 


PAGES. 

Aerie 100 

Aviary  (Vignette) 5 

Bulfinch  (Vignette  on  Title). 

Cages  for  Breeding 15,  32 

Canaries  and  Nest 28 

Canary-Bird  Cage 37 

Dove,  Wild 82 

Goldfinch 43 

Linnet 47 

Cage 49 

Pigeon,  Bald-pated  Tumbler 85 

Barb 94 

Broad  or  Fan-tailed  Shaker  ...  85 


NATIONS. 

• 

PAGES. 

Pigeon,  Dragoon 

Horseman 

Houses 

Jacobin,  or  Jack 

93 

Pouter 

Ring  (Vignette) 

81 

Rock 

82 

Shaker,  Broad-tailed 

85 

Tumbler,  Bald-pated  . . . 

Turbit  

95 

Quail,  European 

Raven 

Robin,  European 

Thrush,  Song  

ADVERTISEMENT. 


IN  issuing  the  present  little  treatise,  the  publisher  would  say  a word  respecting  its 
character  and  the  manner  in  which  it  has  been  composed.  He  is  fully  aware  of 
the  limited  nature  of  the  work,  when  compared  with  the  boundless  science  of  which 
it  forms  a part,  and  would  have  cheerfully  extended  the  subject  had  he  believed  the 
wants  and  economy  of  the  American  public  required  it.  To  those  who  wish  further 
to  pursue  the  subject,  he  would  recommend  the  more  elaborate  treatises  of  Audubon, 
Wilson,  Bonaparte,  Nuttall,  and  Dekay,  for  American  birds,  and  particularly  the  works 
of  Dr.  Bechstein  for  the  birds  of  Europe. 

An  intimate  knowledge  of  Natural  History,  being  an  enthusiastic  lover  of  the 
feathered  tribes,  having  been  familiar  with  them  from  his  earliest  childhood,  has 
well  qualified  Mr.  Browne  for  writing  this,  and  if  necessary,  an  extensive  work.  He 
will  doubtless  be  recollected  by  many  as  the  editor  of  u The  Naturalist,”  a monthly 
periodical,  published  in  Boston  some  twenty  years  ago,  and  more  recently  as  the 
author  of  the  “ American  Poultry  Y ai  d ” and  of  a treatise  on  American  trees 
Within  the  above-named  period,  he  has  travelled  and  resided  for  a considerable 
time  in  various  parts  of  North  and  South  America,  the  West  Indies,  Europe,  and 
Western  Africa,  (having  passed  several  months  at  the  Canary  Islands,)  for  the  express 
purpose  of  investigating,  among  other  objects,  the  natural  features  of  th  « countries, 
where  he  had  ample  opportunities  for  studying  the  habits  of  birds  both  in  a state  of 
nature,  and  in  confinement,  the  most  advantageous  means  of  procuring  them,  and  the 
proper  mode  of  feeding  and  maintaining  them  in  health. 

In  order  that  the  author  may  not  be  accused  of  the  reproach  of  wearing  “ bor- 
rowed plumes,”  it  is  hereby  candidly  confessed  that  he  has  made  a free  use  of  the 
writings  of  Audubon,  Nuttall,  and  particularly  those  of  Dr.  Bechstein,  as  well  as  of  the 
“ Boy’s  Treasury  of  Sports,”  without  giving  them,  in  numerous  instances,  such  credit 
as  the  punctilious  critic  would  seem  to  demand.  Be  this  as  it  may,  the  author  has 
endeavored  not  to  deviate  from  established  custom,  except  in  cases  where  he  deemed 
it  expedient  to  change  the  language,  in  part,  for  the  sake  of  brevity,  elucidation,  or 
Americanising  the  subject,  or  adapting  it  to  our  climate,  economy,  and  social  con- 
dition. Much  of  the  matter,  however,  and  several  of  the  illustrations,  he  claims  to 
be  original. 

The  publisher,  therefore,  confidently  presents  the  “ American  Bird  Fancier”  to 
the  public  with  the  full  belief  that  it  containes  such  information  on  the  subject,  as  the 
taste  and  economy  of  our  fail  *ountry  women  and  their  children  require. 

O.  M.  SAXTON. 


N*w  York,  March  20,  1850, 


I R D S , from  their  elegant  and 
beautiful  coloring,  the  graceful  ease 
of  their  flight,  their  varied  music, 
their  tender  solicitude  for  their  young,  their  singular  and 
engaging  instincts,  their  susceptibility  of  domestication,  and 
their  subserviency  to  the  sustenance  of  man,  have,  for  ages 
past,  attracted  universal  admiration,  and,  as  objects  of  human 
interest,  and  even  affection,  they  stand  foremost,  perhaps,  in 
*be  entire  range  of  animated  nature. 


INTRODUCTION. 


^ 6 

The  structure  of  birds  and  their  habits  of  life,  are  wonder- 
fully adapted  to  the  various  functions  they  are  destined  to 
perform.  The  pointed  beak,  the  long  and  pliant  neck,  the 
gently-swelling  shoulder,  the  expansive  wings,  the  tapering 
tail,  the  light  and  bony  feet,  are  all  wisely  calculated  to  assist 
and  accelerate  their  motion  through  the  yielding  air.  Every 
part  of  their  frame  is  formed  for  lightness  and  buoyancy;  their 
bodies  are  covered  with  a soft  and  delicate  plumage,  so  dis- 
posed as  to  protect  them  from  the  intense  cold  of  the  atmosphere 
through  which  they  pass ; their  wings  are  made  of  the  lightest 
materials,  and  yet,  the  force  with  which  they  strike  the  air  is 
so  great,  as  to  impel  their  bodies  forward  with  astonishing 
rapidity,  while  the  tail  serves  as  a rudder  to  direct  them  to  the 
different  objects  of  their  pursuit. 

The  internal  structure  of  birds  is  no  less  wisely  adapted  to 
the  same  purposes.  Their  lungs  have  several  openings,  com- 
municating with  corresponding  air  bags,  or  cells,  which  fill 
the  whole  cavity  of  the  body  from  ti  ^ neck  downwards,  and 
into  which  the  air  passes  and  re-pa^  es,  in  the  process  of 
breathing.  This  is  not  all ; their  very  bones  are  hollowed  out 
with  the  design  of  receiving  air  from  the  lungs,  from  which 
air  pipes  are  conveyed  to  the  most  solid  parts  of  the  body,  and 
even  into  the  quills  and  plumelets  of  the  feathers  which  are 
hollow  or  spongy  for  its  reception.  As  all  these  hollow  parts, 
as  well  as  the  cells,  are  only  open  on  the  side  communicating 
with  the  lungs,  the  bird  requires  only  to  take  in  a full  breath 
to  fill  and  distend  its  whole  body  with  air,  which,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  considerable  heat  of  its  body,  is  rendered  much 
lighter  than  the  air  of  the  atmosphere.  By  forcing  this  air  out 
of  the  body  again,  the  weight  becomes  so  much  increased,  that 
birds  of  a large  size  can  dart  down  from  great  heights  in  the 
air  with  astonishing  rapidity. 

This  almost  universal  diffusion  of  air  in  the  bodies  of  birds 
is  of  infinite  use  to  them,  not  only  in  these  long  and  laborious 
flights,  but  likewise  in  preventing  their  respiration  from  being 
stopped  or  interrupted  by  the  rapidity  of  their  motion  through 
^ a resisting  medium.  Were  it  possible  for  man  to  move  with  ^ 


INTRODUCTION. 


the  swiftness  of  a swallow,  the  actual  resistance  of  the  air,  as 
he  is  not  provided  with  internal  reservoirs  similar  to  those  of 
birds,  would  soon  suffocate  him. 

The  digestive  organs  of  birds  form  them  into  two  distinct 
natural  classes;  those  with  cartilaginous  stomachs,  covered 
with  very  strong  muscles,  called  a gizzard;  and  those  with 
membranous  stomachs  more  resembling  those  of  carnivorous 
quadrupeds.  The  former  is  given  to  birds,  the  principal  food 
of  which  is  grain  and  seeds  of  various  kinds,  or  other  hard  sub- 
stances that  require  much  friction  to  divide,  or  comminute,  to 
assist  which,  gravel  is  necessary ; the  latter  is  given  to  birds 
which  feed  upon  flesh  or  fish,  and  whose  digestion  is  accele- 
rated more  by  the  gastric  juice  than  by  the  action  of  the 
stomach.  Those  of  the  first  class  digest  or  retain  every  sub- 
stance swallowed;  and  those  which  eject  or  disgorge  innu- 
tritious  matter  unavoidably  taken  in,  such  as  feathers,  fur, 
bones,  &c.,  belong  to  the  second  class,  as  is  conspicuous  in 
those  that  feed  on  fish.  Graminivorous  birds  seem  to  possess 
the  power  of  retaining  the  small  stones  taken  into  the  gizzard, 
or  evacuating  them,  when  they  become  polished  and  less 
useful,  but  cannot  disgorge  them.  In  a state  of  nature,  the 
quantity  of  gravel  taken  in,  must  be  regulated,  no  doubt,  by  the 
sensation  of  the  stomach ; but,  wonderful  as  it  may  seem,  in 
domesticated  animals,  those  instinctive  faculties  are  deranged. 
Instances  frequently  occur  where  the  whole  cavity  of  the 
I gizzard  is  filled  with  gravel  stones.  The  food  of  graminivorous 
j birds  is  conveyed  entire  into  the  first  stomach,  or  craw,  where 
| it  undergoes  a partial  dilution  by  a liquor  secreted  from  the 
; glands,  and  spread  over  its  surface.  It  is  then  received  into 
another  species  of  stomach,  where  it  is  still  further  diluted, 
after  which  it  is  transmitted  into  the  gizzard,  or  true  stomach, 
consisting  of  two  very  strong  muscles,  externally  covered  with 
a tendinous  substance,  and  lined  with  a thick  membrane  of 
prodigious  power  and  strength,  in  which  organ  the  food  is  com- 
pletely triturated,  and  prepared  for  the  operation  of  the  gastric 
juices. 

^ Graminivorous  birds  partake  much  of  the  nature  and  dispo-  ^ 

<df 


Y 8 


INTRODUCTION. 


sition  of  herbivorous  quadrupeds,  agreeing  with  them  in  the 


number  of  their  stomachs,  the  quality  of  their  food,  and  the 
gentleness  of  their  manners.  Content  with  the  seeds  of  plants, 
with  fruits,  insects,  and  worms,  their  principal  attention  is 
directed  to  procuring  food,  hatching  and  rearing  their  offspring, 
and  eluding  the  snares  of  men  and  the  attacks  of  predaceous 
animals.  The  stomachs  of  carnivorous  birds  are  smaller 
than  those  of  the  graminivorous  kinds,  and  their  intestines 
are  much  shorter.  Many  species  of  birds  possess  a reservoir 
for  food,  called  a craw , or  croj),  which  seems  to  answer  the 
same  purpose  as  the  first  stomach  of  ruminating  animals. 
Here  it  is  that  the  food  is  softened  and  prepared  for  the 
stomach,  or  carried  to  the  young. 


The  song  of  birds  is  always,  if  not  the  expression  of  love,  at 
least  that  of  pleasure.  Thus,  the  nightingale  sings  only  as 
long  as  pairing  time  or  hatching  lasts,  and  is  silent  as  soon  as 
it  is  compelled  to  feed  its  young ; whereas,  the  goldfinch  and 
Canary  sing  throughout  the  year,  and  only  cease  when  moult- 
ing dejects  them.  The  continuation  of  the  song  of  these  birds, 
however,  by  no  means  proves  that  it  is  not  occasioned  by  the 
stimulus  of  love. 

Song  appears  to  be  the  especial  privilege  of  the  male, 
whereby  it  either  attracts  the  female  or  seeks  to  obtain  her 
love;  for  there  are  but  few  females  which  produce  notes 
similar  to  the  song  of  the  male,  and  these  almost  exclusively 
in  a state  of  widowhood.  They  listen  attentively,  in  fact,  to 
the  greater  or  less  perfection  or  charm  of  the  song  of  the  male, 
to  bestow  upon  that  one  their  love  whom  they  esteem  the  most 
, accomplished  singer.  Thus,  the  most  sprightly  hen  Canary 
selects  the  best  singer;  and  the  chaffinch,  when  at  liberty,  will1 
choose  from  among  a hundred  males  the  one  whose  song  best 
pleases  her. 

mm 


THE  SONG-  OF  BIRDS. 


INTRODUCTION. 


HABITATION  OF  CAG-E  OR  CHAMBER  BIRDS. 


Birds  which  are  kept  only  on  account  of  their  beauty,  or  for 
their  animation  and  vivacity,  are  generally  kept  best  in  a room 
where  they  can  run  or  fly  freely  about,  and  where  they  can 
resort  at  night  for  repose,  to  a large  cage  of  many  compart- 
ments, or  to  one  or  more  fir  trees.  But  larger  birds  should 
have  an  apartment  expressly  appropriated  to  them,  as  their 
faeces  smell  unpleasantly  in  a dwelling  room,  whence  also  they 
require  constant  cleaning.  Smaller  birds  may  be  allowed  to 
run  freely  about,  having  a small  tree  or  a cage  hung  up  for 
them  to  roost  in.  With  this  degree  of  liberty,  many  birds  sing 
better  than  when  confined  in  a cage. 

Cleanliness  is  in  every  respect  very  important  in  keeping 
birds,  for  they  are  not  only  thereby  preserved  for  many  years 
but  it  keeps  them  constantly  healthy  and  cheerful ; hence  it  is 
necessary  that  the  cage  should  be  cleaned  at  least  once  a- week, 
and  birds  which  run  about  upon  the  ground,  should  have  the 
sand  renewed  frequently ; the  perches  also  of  such  as  use  them 
should  be  carefully  cleaned.  If  this  be  not  attended  to,  the 
birds  will  become  sickly,  and  will  suffer  from  lame  feet,  gout, 
and  other  maladies,  terminating  in  the  loss  of  their  toes,  as  all 
must  have  experienced  who  have  been  accustomed  to  keep 
birds,  and  have  neglected  cleansing  them.  In  cleaning  their 
feet,  it  is  very  requisite  that  the  bird  should  have  them  dipped 
in  water  before  the  dirt  is  removed ; for  if  this  be  not  done,  the 
skin,  to  which  the  dirt  closely  adheres,  comes  off  with  it,  which 
renders  the  bird  not  merely  lame,  but  also  attracts  to  the  part 
all  the  unhealthy  humors  generated  by  their  unnatural  mode 
of  living. 

It  is  in  the  feet  indeed  that  cage  or  chamber  bird^  chiefly 
suffer,  and  they  must  be  daily  examined  to  see  that  nothing 
gets  entangled  about  them,  as  hair  thus  twisted  will  frequently 
cut  very  deep,  and  in  the  course  of  a few  days,  that  portion  of 
the  foot  or  toe,  so  tied  up,  will  dry  up  and  fall  off.  Very  great  ^ 


INTRODUCTION. 


10 


attention  must  be  paid  to  this  particular  circumstance,  as 
scarcely  a biid  can  be  preserved  for  any  length  of  time  with 
all  its  toes  uninjured.  It  is  not  to  be  denied,  however,  that 
many  birds  keep  themselves  exceedingly  neat,  whilst  others, 
even  of  the  same  genus,  are  so  uncleanly,  that  they  are  not 
only  always  soiling  themselves,  but  never  clean  their  feet, 
beak,  nor  wings. 

Some  bird  fanciers  take  delight  in  making  birds  so  tame  as 
to  be  taken  upon  the  hand  into  the  open  air,  or  to  be  allowed 
to  fly  away  and  come  back  again  upon  a call.  “ One  of  my 
friends,”  says  Dr.  Bechstein, 44  who  has  tamed  birds  as  well  as 
otters,  adders,  foxes,  weasels,  and  martins,  so  that  they  would 
follow  him  upon  a sign  given,  adopts  the  following  easy  and 
certain  method  to  effect  it : — When  he  wishes  to  accustom  a 
bird  to  fly  abroad,  or  to  go  out  with  him  perched  upon  his 
finger  or  his  shoulder,  he  first  teases  it  with  a soft  feather  in 
its  cage  which  stands  open.  The  bird  soon  snaps  at  the  feather, 
and  then  at  his  finger,  and  it  will  then  come  out  of  the  cage,  and 
perch  upon  the  extended  finger ; he  immediately  strokes  it, 
and  lays  a few  choice  morsels  before  it.  These,  the  bird  will 
soon  take  out  of  the  hand  itself.  He  then  commences  by 
familiarising  the  bird  with  some  peculiar  call  or  whistle,  and 
he  carries  it,  as  soon  as  it  permits  itself  to  be  grasped  in  the 
hand,  placed  upon  his  hand  or  shoulder,  from  chamber  to 
chamber,  taking  care  to  close  the  doors  and  windows ; he  then 
suffers  it  to  fly,  and  calls  it  back  again.  As  soon  as  it  attends 
to  this  call  without  being  scared  or  frightened,  he  takes  it 
cautiously  into  the  open  air,  and  thus  the  bird  becomes 
gradually  so  accustomed  to  him  that  he  can  carry  it  abroad  or 
into  company  without  its  offering  to  fly  away.” 

Care,  however,  must  be  taken  not  to  carry  adult  birds,  which 
have  been  thus  tamed,  into  the  open  air  where  they  can  hear 
their  fellows,  in  the  spring  or  at  pairing  time,  which  are 
usually  the  periods  when  they  show  indications  of  resuming 
their  native  wildness. 

If  it  is  wished  to  teach  a bird  to  eat  out  of  the  mouth,  it 
^ must  be  kept  for  a time  in  the  cage  without  food,  and  then 

. — - 


INTRODUCTION. 


when  sitting  upon  the  finger  its  favorite  food  must  be  held  to 
it  upon  the  tip  of  the  exteded  tongue.  Hunger  soon  teaches  it 
to  peck.  Such  tame  birds  learn,  also,  speedily  to  sing  upon  the 
finger.  To  accomplish  this,  nothing  more  is  necessary  than 
to  induce  it  by  certain  tones,  motions,  and  fondling.  But  it 
is  still  further  requisite  to  observe  in  this  process  of  taming, 
that,  to  be  effectual,  it  should  be  continued  for  a longer  time 
than  is  here  laid  down.  May  we  not  presume  that  the  bird 
will,  in  the  course  of  a few  weeks,  do  that  freely  which  has 
been  taught,  or  rather  forced  upon  it,  in  this  short  space  of 
time. 


FOOD  OF  TAME  BIRDS. 

In  selecting  the  food  of  birds  in  confinement,  it  is  requisite 
to  do  so,  as  far  as  is  practicable,  in  accordance  with  the  nature 
of  its  food  in  a natural  state.  This,  indeed,  is  frequently 
difficult,  if  not  wholly  impossible.  Great  caution,  therefore, 
must  be  observed  to  accustom  the  birds  we  keep,  or  rather 
their  stomachs,  by  degrees,  to  the  food  we  are  compelled  to 
supply  them,  although  it  cannot  be  denied  that  there  are 
birds,  also,  which,  as  soon  as  they  are  placed  in  the  aviary,  eat 
anything  that  is  given  to  them.  But  others  are  more  deli- 
cate, and  will  not  eat  at  all,  partly  from  grief  at  the  loss  of 
their  liberty,  and  partly  from  not  finding  the  food  they  have 
been  accustomed  to.  Great  care  must  therefore,  be  taken  of 
these.  If  such  as  are  known  to  be  delicate — the  majority  of 
singing  birds — for  instance,  commence  greedily  eating  as  soon 
as  they  are  placed  in  the  chamber,  it  is  a bad  sign ; for  they 
will  certainly  die,  as  it  implies  an  unnatural  indifference  to  the 
loss  of  their  liberty,  which  is  almost  always  deducible  from 
sickliness.  Those  which  creep  into  corners  and  seem  for 
some  hours  to  pine,  it  is  less  necessary  to  be  anxious 
about;  but  they  must  not  be  disturbed  until  their  ill-humor 
subsides. 

Dr.  Meyer,  of  Offenbach,  Germany,  remarks  as  follows  upon 


12 


INTRODUCTION. 


this  subject : — •“  An  almost  unfailing  mode  of  accustoming  birds 
to  their  food,  which  is  known  to  be  extremely  difficult  in  many, 
is  thus:  Let  the  bird  be  placed  in  a cage  in  the  room  where  it 
is  purposed  to  be  kept ; give  it  freely  appropriate  food  and 
drink  in  open  vessels;  leave  it  thus  undisturbed  for  several 
hours ; then  catch  it  and  dip  it  in  fresh  water,  and  again  place 
it  in  its  former  cage.  It  will  now  sit  for  some  moments 
thoroughly  exhausted,  but  will  soon  recover  and  begin  preen- 
ing itself,  and  in  the  course  of  a few  minutes  become  extremely 
animated,  and  then  it  will  certainly  eat  the  food  put  before  it. 
Doubtless  the  same  cause  produces  an  appetite  in  birds  after 
bathing  as  in  man.” 

In  order  to  give  some  general  rules  for  the  best  food  of  cage 
or  house  birds,  I have  divided  them,  after  Dr.  Bech stein,  into 
four  following  classes: — 

The  first  comprehends  those  birds  which  live  only  on  seeds, 
such  as  Canaries,  goldfinches,  Siskins,  &c. 

The  second  are  those  which  feed  both  on  seeds  and  insects, 
such  as  quails,  larks,  cat  birds,  and  mocking  birds;  some  of 
these  also  eat  the  buds  and  berries  of  trees. 

The  third  are  those  which  seek  only  berries  and  insects, 
such  as  nightingales,  redbreasts,  thrushes,  and  the  like. 

The  fourth  are  those  which  eat  insects  only,  such  as  wag- 
tails, woodpeckers,  cuckoos,  &c. 

The  birds  in  the  last-named  class  are  the  most  difficult  to 
preserve;  but 'most  of  them,  having  nothing  particular  in  their 
song,  offer  but  little  compensation  for  the  trouble  and  care 
which  they  require. 

Recipe  for  a General  Food. — In  proportion  to  the  number  of 
birds,  white  bread  enough  must  be  baked  to  last  for  three 
months.  When  it  is  well  baked  and  stale,  it  must  be  put  again 
into  the  oven,  and  left  there  until  cold.  It  is  then  fit  to  be 
pounded  in  a mortar,  and  will  keep  several  months  without 
becoming  bad.  Every  day  a teaspoonful  for  each  bird  is  taken 
of  this  meal,  on  which  is  poured  three  times  as  much  cold,  or 
lukewarm,  (but  not  boiling,)  milk.  If  the  meal  be  good,  a firm 
paste  will  be  formed,  which  must  be  chopped  very  small  on  a ^ 

- . ...  i >" i ■ " •* 


INTRODUCTION. 


13 

board.  This  paste,  which  is  very  nourishing,  may  be  kept  a 
long  time  without  becoming  sour  or  sticky ; on  the  contrary,  it 
is  always  dry  and  brittle.  As  soon  as  a delicate  bird  is 
brought  in,  some  flies  or  chopped  worms  should  be  mixed  with 
the  paste,  which  will  attract  it  to  eat.  It  will  soon  be  accus- 
tomed to  this  food,  which  will  keep  it  in  life  and  health. 

Although  the  notice  of  a universal  remedy  is  generally 
suspicious,  the  two  following  sorts  of  paste  have  been  recom- 
mended, and  used  with  success,  agreeing  well  with  all,  or 
nearly  all,  tamed  birds,  if  we  except  those  which  are  con- 
fined in  cages  on  account  of  their  beautiful  songs.  They  are 
not  only  very  simple  and  cheap,  but  also  prevent  great  loss  of 
time  to  those  who  possess  a great  number  of  birds. 

Universal  Paste. — To  make  the  first  paste,  take  a white  loaf 
which  is  well  baked  and  stale ; put  it  into  fresh  water,  and 
leave  it  there  until  quite  soaked  through ; then  squeeze  out  the 
water  and  pour  boiled  milk  over  the  loaf,  adding  about  two 
thirds  the  quantity  of  barley  meal  with  the  bran  well  sifted  out, 
or,  what  is  still  better,  wheat  meal. 

For  the  second  paste,  grate  a carrot  very  nicely  (this  root 
may  be  kept  nearly  a whole  year  if  buried  in  sand) ; then  soak  a 
small  white  loaf  in  fresh  water,  press  the  water  out,  and  put  it 
and  the  grated  carrot  into  an  earthen  pan ; add  twro  handfuls  of 
barley  or  wheat  meal,  and  mix  the  whole  well  together  with  a 
pestle. 

These  pastes  should  be  made  fresh  every  morning,  as  they 
soon  become  sour,  particularly  the  first,  and  consequently 
hurtful. 

Every  morning,  fresh  water  must  be  given  to  the  birds,  both 
for  drinking  and  bathing.  When  a great  many  are  left  at 
liberty,  one  dish  will  do  for  them  all,  about  eight  inches  long, 
and  two  in  width  and  depth,  divided  into  several  partitions, 
by  which  means  they  are  prevented  from  plunging  entirely 
into  the  water,  and  in  consequence  making  the  place  always 
dirty  and  damp.  A vessel  of  the  same  size  and  shape  will 
do  for  holding  the  universal  paste,  but  then  it  must  have  no 
partitions. 


p®»>~ 

14 


INTRODUCTION. 


Those  birds  which  devour  everything  thrown  to  them,  must 
be  protected  against  the  possibility  of  having  any  food  given 
to  them  that  contains  pepper  or  much  salt,  and  especially 
against  putrid  meat.  This  is  a universal  rule  of  precaution. 
It  may  further  be  observed,  that  to  birds  confined  in  cages, 
no  more  must  be  given  than  they  can  eat  during  the  day; 
otherwise  they  will  accustom  themselves  to  scatter  their  food 
out  of  the  vessel,  and  eat  the  best  first,  leaving  the  worst  for 
subsequent  fare ; and  are  consequently  to-day  well,  and 
drooping  to-morrow. 


BREEDING-. 

There  is  but  little  to  be  said  of  the  breeding  of  birds  in 
confinement,  as,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  it  is  difficult  to  accom- 
plish, excepting  in  such  as  can  be  thoroughly  familiarised', 
like  Canaries.  Of  breeding  places,  there  are  two  kinds,  one  a 
large  cage  made  of  wire  or  wood,  and  the  other  the  entire 
range  of  a room.  Both  should  be  dry,  airy,  and  exposed  in 
our  northern  climate  to  the  warmth  and  light  of  the  sun.  It  is 
chiefly  requisite  to  supply  birds  that  are  to  breed  with  a still, 
solitary,  and  spacious  abode ; and  it  is  preferable  to  give  them 
an  entire  apartment  in  which  evergreens  are  placed  that  have 
not  lost  their  leaves.  Above  all  things,  it  is  desirable  to  make 
this  abode  as  nearly  resemble  their  natural  dwelling  place  as 
possible,  that  they  may  be  excited  to  pair.  With  every  care, 
however,  to  render  their  breeding  place  like  the  natural  one, 
it  is  difficult  to  supply  them  with  the  necessary  materials  for 
their  nests,  This  deficiency  should  be  supplied  by  nests  arti- 
ficially formed  of  woven  cotton,  willow,  straw,  or  turned  'wood, 
into  which  they  will  only  have  to  convey  appropriate  linings ; 
for  this  purpose,  they  must  be  supplied  with  the  hair  of  animals 
and  raw  silk,  cotton,  wool,  &c. 

Especial  care  must  be  taken  to  furnish  the  birds  with 
requisite  food,  which  partly  contributes  to  fit  old  ones  for 
breeding,  and  which  must  also  be  suited  to  the  varying 


INTRODUCTION. 


ages  of  the  reared  young.  In  this  particular,  I shall  mention 
what  must  be  done,  in  the  articles  relating  to  the  different 
species  described  in  the  subsequent  part  of  this  work. 


BREEDING  CA.GE. 


INTRODUCTION. 


TIME  FOR  REMOVING-  WILD  BIRDS  FROM  THE  NEST. 

It  may  be  necessary  that  I should  give  some  general  direc- 
tions about  the  time  at  which  it  is  desirable  to  remove  young 
wild  birds,  intended  to  be  reared,  from  the  nest.  This  is  when 
the  tail  quills  shoot  forth,  and  when  all  the  feathers  begin  to 
expand,  and  before  the  birds  can  yet  completely  open  their 
eyes.  If  they  are  removed  earlier,  their  stomachs  are  too  weak 
to  endure  the  food  of  the  aviary,  and  if  it  take  place  later,  it  is 
usually  extremely  difficult  to  induce  them  to  open  their  beaks 
to  receive  food  with  which  they  are  unacquainted.  But  there 
are  species  of  birds  which  can  at  all  times  be  easily  fed  and 
tamed.  As  a general  rule,  all  seed-eating  birds  may  be 
tamed,  both  adult  and  young. 


DISEASES  OF  TAME  BIRDS. 

Like  all  tame  animals,  birds  that  are  kept  in  confinement, 
are  exposed  to  more  maladies  than  those  which  live  at  large ; * 
and  especially  as  they  are  frequently  so  closely  confined  in 
cages  that  they  have  scarcely  room  to  move.  These  maladies, 
however,  are  considerably  increased  by  their  having  all  kinds 
of  delicacies,  as  pastry,  sugar,  &c.,  given  them,  which  spoil 
their  stomachs  and  usually  produce  a slow  consumption. 

The  following  are  the  chief  maladies  which  affect  birds,  and 
their  remedies,  as  laid  down  by  Dr.  Bechstein,  the  efficiency 
of  which  he  proved  upon  his  own.  Indeed,  the  variety  of  birds, 
as  well  as  the  variety  of  their  food,  requires  also  a difference 
of  treatment  in  their  maladies ; and  in  speaking  of  each  species, 
I shall  have  occasion  to  notice  how  their  peculiar  diseases  may 
be  treated,  when  the  general  remedies  are  not  suitable  to  their 
nature. 


* It  has  been  frequently  asserted  that  birds  in  their  natural  state  are  never  ill,  but 
this  is  unfounded. 


INTRODUCTION. 


Pip,  or  Thrush. — This  is  a catarrh,  or  cold,  by  which  the 
nostrils  arc  stopped  up,  and  the  membrane  covering  the  tongue 
is  hardened  by  inflammation.  In  large  birds,  it  is  common  to 
remove  this  skin,  taking  it  off  from  the  base  to  the  tip;  but 
rough  modes  should  not  be  used  for  doing  it.  A little  borax, 
dissolved  in  water,  may  be  applied  to  the  tongue  with  a camel- 
hair  pencil  two  or  three  times  a-day  until  a healthy  action  is 
produced.  By  this  means,  this  part  can  again  perspire,  the 
saliva  necessary  for  digestion  can  flow,  and  the  taste  and  appe- 
tite return.  A mixture  of  fresh  butter,  pepper,  and  garlic, 
generally  cures  this  catarrh.  It  is  a good  thing,  also,  for 
the  birds  to  drink  the  pectoral  infusion  of  speedwell 
( Veronica  officinalis ) ; and  the  nostrils  may  be  opened  by 
passing  up  a small  feather  dipped  in  oil.  The  ruffling  of 
the  head,  the  beak  often  open  and  yellow  at  its  base,  and 
the  tongue  dry,  are  the  most  decisive  indications  of  this 
disease. 

Rheum. — The  symptoms  of  this  disease  are  frequent  sneezing 
and  shaking  of  the  head.  Some  drops  of  pectoral  elixir  in  the 
infusion  of  speedwell,  which  the  sick  birds  must  be  made  to 
take,  appears  to  be  the  most  efficacious  remedy. 

When  it  is  merely  hoarseness,  Dr.  Handel,  of  Mentz,  in 
France,  gave  to  his  birds  for  several  days,  as  their  only  drink, 
a very  dilute  decoction  of  dry  figs,  sweetened  with  a little 
sugar,  and  afterwards  purged  them,  for  two  days  following,  with 
the  juice  of  carrots. 

Asthma. — This  is  a very  common  disease  among  house 
birds.  Those  attacked  with  it  have  their  breath  short,  often 
open  their  beaks  as  if  to  gasp  for  more  air,  and,  when  agitated 
or  frightened,  keep  them  open  for  a long  time. 

The  cause  of  this  disease  may  doubtless  be  found  in  the 
mode  of  life  which  the  birds  lead.  Their  food  is  generally 
too  dry  and  heating,  being  principally  hemp  seed,  which  is 
very  injurious,  but  liked  by  all;  and  is  the  more  hurtful,  as  it 
inclines  them  to  eat  too  much.  If  to  this,  be  added  the  un- 
changed air  of  the  rooms,  particularly  those  which  have  stoves 
A instead  of  chimneys,  and  the  great  heat  which  is  kept  up  A 


f 18 


INTRODUCTION. 


f 


during  winter,  it  is  plain  that  there  is  much  to  injure  the 
delicate  lungs  of  the  birds. 

A moist  and  refreshing  regimen  and  some  aperients,  more  or 
less  often,  according  to  the  violence  of  the  disease,  appears  the 
most  appropriate  remedy.  A favorite  linnet  and  goldfinch, 
mentioned  by  Dr.  Bechstein,  when  attacked  with  very  bad 
asthma,  were  relieved  and  preserved  for  several  years  by  the 
following  method : — 

The  first  thing  was  to  leave  off  hemp  seed  entirely,  confining 
them  solely  to  rape  seed ; but  giving  them  at  the  same  time  an 
abundance  of  bread,  soaked  in  pure  water,  and  then  pressed ; 
lettuce,  endive,  or  water  cresses,  according  to  the  season,  twice 
a-week,  giving  them  bread  boiled  in  milk,  about  the  size  of  a 
nutmeg.  This  is  made  by  throwing  a piece  of  the  crumb  of 
white  bread,  about  the  size  of  a nut,  into  a teacupful  of  milk, 
boiling  it,  and  stirring  it  all  the  time  with  a wooden  spoon  till 
it  is  of  the  consistency  of  pap.  It  must  be  quite  cold  before  it 
is  given  to  the  birds,  and  must  always  be  made  fresh,  for  if 
sour,  it  will  prove  injurious. 

This  paste,  which  they  are  very  fond  of,  purges  them  suffi- 
ciently, and  sensibly  relieves  them.  In  very  violent  attacks, 
nothing  but  this  paste  ought  to  be  given  for  two  or  three  days 
following,  and  this  will  soon  give  the  desired  relief. 

When  the  disease  is  slight,  or  only  begun,  it  is  sufficient  to 
give  the  bread  and  milk  once  in  three  or  four  days.  When 
employed  under  similar  circumstances,  this  treatment  has 
cured  several  very  valuable  birds.  It  may  not  be  useless 
here  to  renew  the  advice  of  always  giving  the  birds  an 
opportunity  of  bathing  every  day,  by  putting  in  their  way 
a saucer,  or  any  other  small  shallow  bath,  filled  with 
water,  which  should  never  be  too  cold,  and  in  winter  always  ^ 
milkwarm. 

One  thing  which  is  very  injurious  to  the  lungs  of  birds,  and 
which  too  often  occurs,  is  the  fright  occasioned  by  tormenting 
them,  or  by  seizing  them  too  suddenly;  for  the  poor  little 
things  often  rupture  a blood  vessel  in  the  breast  while  beating 
Ahemselves  about.  A drop  of  blood  in  the  beak  is  the  sign,  and  1 


INTRODUCTION. 


a speedy  death  is  the  general  consequence.  If  this  do  not 
happen,  the  breathing  is  not  the  less  difficult  and  painful; 
and  recovery  is  rare,  at  least  without  the  greatest  care  and 
attention. 

Birds  that  eat  insects  and  worms,  occasionally,  by  acci- 
dent, swallow  some  extraneous  substance,  which,  sticking  in 
their  throat,  stops  their  respiration  and  stifles  them.  The  only 
remedy  is  to  extract  the  foreign  body,  which  requires  much 
skill  and  dexterity. 

When  asthma  is  brought  on  by  eating  seeds,  which  are  too 
old,  spoiled,  or  rancid,  Dr.  Handel  recommends  some  drops  of 
oxymel,  (honey  and  vinegar  boiled  to  a syrup,)  to  be  swallowed 
for  eight  days  following.  But  the  best  way  is  to  change  the 
seed,  and  be  sure  there  is  none  but  good  seed  in  the  feeding 
trough. 

Atrophy,  or  Wasting. — This  is  caused  by  giving  unnatural 
food  to  the  bird,  which  destroys  the  digestive  power  of  its 
stomach.  In  this  case,  it  disgorges  its  food,  ruffles  its  feathers, 
and  does  not  arrange  them,  and  becomes  thin  very  fast.  The 
best  thing  is  to  make  it  swallow  a common  spider,  which 
purges  it,  and  put  a rusty  nail  into  its  water,  which  strengthens 
the  tone  of  the  stomach,  giving  it  at  the  same  time  its  proper 
and  natural  food.  Green  food,  such  as  lettuce,  endive,  chick- 
weed,  and  particularly  water  cresses,  is  the  safest  remedy.  A 
very  great  appetite  is  a sign  of  this  disease.  A Siskin,  men- 
tioned by  Dr.  Bechstein,  that  was  dying  of  atrophy,  had  nothing 
but  water  cresses  for  three  days  following,  and  on  the  fourth 
he  sung. 

Consumption. — This  is  usually  the  result  of  unnatural  food, 
which  interrupts  the  function  of  digestion,  and  it  is  recognised 
by  the  bird  inflating  and  distending  itself.  The  feathers  are 
ruffled,  and  the  flesh  dwindles.  No  better  remedy,  perhaps, 
can  be  found  than  to  give  such  birds  a common  spider,  which 
purges  them,  and  to  lay  in  their  water  a rusty  nail,  which 
strengthens  the  stomach.  They  must,  at  the  same  time,  be  fed 
with  the  best  description  of  their  appropriate  food.  In  birds 
A which  will  eat  vegetables,  and  especially  water  cresses,  this  . 

fb — 


20 


INTRODUCTION. 


will  be  found  the  surest  remedy  against  consumption,  or 
waste.  Usually,  birds  suffering  from  this  malady  have  a 
voracious  appetite  for  green  food.  Dr.  Bechstein  fed  a Siskin, 
which  had  already  completely  wasted,  for  three  successive 
days,  with  nothing  but  water  cresses,  and  on  the  fourth  it  re- 
commenced singing. 

Costiveness. — This  disease  may  be  discovered  from  the 
frequent  unsuccessful  endeavors  of  the  bird  to  relieve  itself. 
Aperients  will  be  of  use.  If  a spider  does  not  produce  the 
desired  effect,  anoint  the  vent  of  the  bird  with  the  head  of  a 
pin  steeped  in  linseed  oil;  this  sort  of  clyster  generally 
succeeds.  Boiled  bread  and  milk  is  also  of  great  service. 

Diarrhcea. — This  is  a disease  to  which  birds  that  have  been 
caught  recently  are  very  subject,  before  they  are  accustomed 
to  their  new  food.  Most  of  these  die  of  it ; they  continually 
void  a white  calcareous  matter,  which  sticks  to  the  feathers 
round  the  vent,  and  being  very  acrid  causes  inflammation  in 
that  part  and  in  the  intestines.  Sometimes  chalybeate  water, 
(iron  water,)  and  the  oil  clyster  produce  good  effects ; but  it  is 
better,  if  possible,  to  procure  for  the  bird  its  most  natural  food. 
Some  people  pull  out  the  feathers  from  the  tail  and  vent,  and 
then  rub  these  parts  with  fresh  butter,  but  this  is  a very 
painful  and  cruel  operation.  They  also  mix  the  yolk  of  an 
egg  boiled  very  hard  with  their  food,  but  this  does  not  succeed 
very  well.  If  there  be  any  hope  of  curing  this  disease,  it  is  by 
attacking  it  at  the  beginning,  before  inflammation  is  violent ; 
boiled  bread  and  milk,  a plenty  of  lettuce,  or  any  other  similar 
green  refreshing  food,  generally  effects  a cure. 

In  a case  of  chronic  diarrhoea,  which  almost  reduces  the 
birds  to  skeletons,  Dr.  Handel,  of  France,  prescribes  chaly- 
beate water,  mixed  with  a little  milk  for  their  drink,  which,  he 
says,  is  an  easy  and  certain  cure. 

Bloody  Flux. — This  is  a disease  with  which  some  parrots 
are  attacked.  The  best  remedy  is  to  make  the  birds  drink  a 
plenty  of  boiled  milk,  or  even  very  fat  broth ; for  their  intes- 
tines, which  are  very  much  irritated,  require  something  sooth- 
ing to  protect  them  from  the  acrid  discharges,  which,  at  the  , 



INTRODUCTION. 


same  time,  must  by  corrected  be  healing  food.  Birds  in  this 
state,  generally  do  nothing  but  drink;  therefore  plenty  of 
boiled  milk  should  be  given  them,  as  it  nourishes  them,  as  well 
as  acts  medicinally,  but  should  it  appear  to  turn  sour  in  the 
stomach,  it  must,  at  least  for  some  time,  be  discontinued. 

Obstruction  of  the  Rump  Gland. — This  gland,  which  is  on 
the  rump,  and  contains  the  oil  employed  for  anointing  the 
feathers,  sometimes  becomes  hard  and  inflamed,  and  an  abscess 
forms  there.  In  this  case,  the  bird  often  pierces  it  itself,  or  it 
may  be  softened  by  applying  fresh  butter  without  any  salt; 
hi  it  is  better  to  use  an  ointment  made  of  white  lead,  litharge, 
wax,  and  olive  oil,  which  may  be  had  of  any  good  chemist  or 
apothecary.  The  general  method  is  to  pierce  or  cut  the 
hardened  gland,  in  order  to  let  out  the  matter. 

The  gland  is  known  to  be  obstructed  when  the  feathers, 
which  surround  it,  are  ruffled,  the  bird  never  ceasing  to  peck 
them,  and  instead  of  being  yellow  it  becomes  brown.  Dr. 
Bechstein  says,  this  disease  is  very  rare  among  wild  birds,  for, 
being  exposed  to  damp,  and  bathing  often,  they  make  more 
use  of  the  liquor  in  the  gland,  consequently,  it  does  not  accu- 
mulate suflflciently  to  become  corrupted,  sour,  or  cancerous. 
This  confirms  the  necessity  of  giving  them  the  means  of 
bathing  as  often  as  instinct  would  induce  them,  as  nothing 
cam  be  more  favorable  to  their  health. 

Dr.  Handel,  after  piercing  the  gland,  recommends  a little 
magnesia  to  be  mixed  with  the  bird’s  drink. 

Epilepsy. — This  is  a disease  with  which  house  birds  are 
very  often  attacked.  What  has  been  found  to  be  most  useful 
in  this  case,  is  to  plunge  the  sick  birds  every  now  and  then 
into  very  cold  water,  letting  them  fall  suddenly  into  it,  and 
cutting  their  claws,  or  at  least  one  or  two,  short  enough  for 
the  blood  to  run. 

From  bleeding  giving  so  much  relief,  one  would  think  that 
this  disease  is  a kind  of  apoplexy,  occasioned  by  want  of 
exercise  and  too  much  food.  Bullfinches  and  thrushes  are 
more  subject  to  it  than  any  other  birds,  and  bleeding  always 
cures  them,  which  has  been  done  with  great  success  in  the  fol-  A 
» 


JgBfr- 


f 22 


INTRODUCTION. 


lowing  manner,  but  much  delicacy  and  skill  are  required,  as 
there  would  be  great  danger  of  laming  the  bird : — A very  small 
hole  is  made  on  the  surface  of  the  claw,  with  a lancet  or  very 
sharp  penknife ; it  is  then  plunged  in  lukewarm  water,  and  if 
the  operation  be  well  done,  the  blood  runs  like  a thread  of  red 
silk;  when  removed  from  the  water,  the  bleeding  stops;  no 
bandage  nor  dressing  is  required. 

Tympany,  or  Bloating. — In  this  disorder,  the  skin  on  one 
part  of  the  body,  or  even  the  whole  body,  rises  and  swells  to 
so  great  a degree  that  it  is  stretched  like  a drum.  It  is  gene- 
rally sufficient  to  pierce  it  with  a pin,  so  as  to  let  the  air 
escape,  and  the  bird  will  be  cured. 

Disease  in  the  Feet. — House  birds  are  often  subject  to  bad 
feet.  From  the  second  year,  they  become  pale,  and  lose  their 
freshness.  They  must  be  frequently  cleaned,  taking  care  to 
remove  the  skin ; the  thick  loose  scales  ought  also  to  be  taken 
off,  but  with  all  possible  precaution. 

The  gout  occasions  the  feet  to  swell ; they  are  also  so  scaly 
and  painful  that  the  poor  little  bird  cannot  support  itself  with- 
out resting  on  the  points  of  its  wings.  Dr.  Handel  prescribes  a 
warm  fomentation  with  a decoction  of  soap  wort  ( Saponaria 
officinalis).  If  a foot  should  be  bruised  or  broken,  he  advises 
that  the  diseased  bird  shoul  1 be  shut  up  in  a very  small  cage, 
the  bottom  of  which  is  very  smooth  and  even,  without  any 
perches,  or  anything  which  would  tempt  it  to  hop,  and  put 
in  a very  quiet  and  solitary  place,  out  of  the  way  of  anything 
which  might  produce  agitation.  In  this  manner,  the  bird  will 
cure  itself  in  a little  time,  without  any  bandage  or  plaster  of 
any  kind. 

Dr.  Bech stein  was  of  the  opinion  that  the  principal  cause  of 
bad  feet  is  want  of  bathing.  The  scales,  contracting  from 
dryness,  occasion  great  pain ; in  order  to  remove  them  with 
ease,  and  without  danger,  the  feet  must  be  softened  in  luke- 
warm water.  The  following  method  has  been  used  with  a 
bullfinch  with  success : — Its  cage  was  made  with  a movable 
tin  bottom,  which,  being  half  or  three  quarters  of  an  inch  deep, 
A could  hold  water,  that  was  put  in  tepid,  to  bathe  the  bird; 
*>. 


INTRODUCTION. 


23 


the  perches  were  then  removed,  so  that  the  bird  was  obliged 
to  remain  in  the  water,  where  it  was  left  for  half  an  hour, 
sometimes  throwing  it  hemp  seed  to  amuse  it.  After  repeating 
the  bath  once  or  twice,  the  bird  became  very  fond  of  it ; and  it 
was  remarked  that  its  feet  became,  if  we  may  say  so,  quite 
young  again.  The  scales  being  sufficiently  softened,  the 
middle  of  each  was  cut  lengthwise  without  reaching  the  flesh ; 
this  made  the  sides  easily  fall  off.  It  is  better  to  remove  only 
two  scales  a-day,  that  the  bird  may  not  be  wearied.  By  con- 
tinuing the  bath  three  times  a- week,  the  feet  become  healthy 
and  supple,  and  the  bird  is  easy. 

Sore  Eyes. — The  juice  of  red  beet  for  drink,  and  also  as  a 
liniment,  greatly  relieves  this  disorder.  Dr.  Handel,  of  Mentz, 
recommends  washing  the  eyes,  when  disposed  to  blindness, 
with  an  infusion  of  the  root  of  white  hellebore. 

Tumors  and  Ulcers. — As  to  the  tumors  and  ulcers  which 
come  on  the  heads  of  the  birds,  Dr.  Handel  touches  them  with 
a middling-sized  red-hot  knitting  needle.  This  makes  the 
watery  humor  run  out,  and  the  wound  afterwards  dries  and 
heals.  To  soften  the  pain,  a little  liquid  black  soap  is  used.  If, 
from  the  softness  of  the  tumor,  matter  seems  to  have  formed,  it 
should  be  rubbed  with  fresh  butter  until  it  is  come  to  a head ; 
it  may  then  be  emptied,  and  opened  by  a few  drops  of  essence 
of  myrrh.  During  all  this  time,  the  bird  must  have  nothing 
but  beet  juice  to  drink. 

Ulcers  in  the  palate  and  throat  may  be  cured  by  making  the 
bird  drink  the  milk  of  almonds  for  several  days,  at  the  same 
time  lightly  touching  the  ulcers  several  times  a-day  with  a 
feather  dipped  in  a mixture  of  honey  and  borax. 

Moulting. — This  occurrence,  though  natural,  is  generally 
accompanied  with  disease,  during  which  the  birds  ought  to  be 
taken  great  care  of.  Their  food  should  be  changed,  but  with- 
out giving  any  heating  delicacies,  which  are  very  injurious. 

It  has  been  observed  that  birds  always  moult  at  the  time 
when  their  food  is  most  abundant  ; the  forest  birds  may  then 
be  seen  approaching  fields  and  cultivated  places,  where,  having 
plenty  of  insects  and  seeds,  they  cannot  suffer  from  want; 

4a 


INTRODUCTION. 


24 


indeed,  the  loss  of  their  feathers  prevents  their  taking  #long 
flights,  and  the  reproduction  of  them  occasions  a loss  of  flesh 
which  must  be  repaired.  An  abundance  of  food  is  therefore 
necessary,  and,  following  this  rule,  during  moulting,  some 
additional  food  must  be  given  to  house  birds,  appropriate  to 
the  different  species — millet  or  Canary  seed,  a little  hemp  seed, 
white  bread  soaked  in  water,  and  lettuce,  or  endive,  to  those 
which  feed  on  seeds;  with  a few  more  worms  and  ants’ 
eggs  to  those  that  eat  insects;  all  should  have  bread  soaked  in 
boiled  milk,  warmth,  and  baths.  Nothing  has  succeeded  better 
than  this  regimen. 

Vertigo,  or  Giddiness. — This,  without  being  properly  a dis- 
ease, is  rather  common,  and  is  occasioned  by  the  trick  which 
the  birds  of  the  first  class  have,  of  turning  their  head  and  neck 
so  far  round  that  they  fall  off  their  perch.  They  may  be 
easily  cured  of  this  trick  by  throwing  a covering  over  the  top 
of  the  cage,  which  prevents  their  seeing  anything  above  them, 
for  it  is  with  looking  up  that  this  giddiness  comes  on. 

Pairing  Fever. — A disease  v/hich  may  be  called  the  “ pairing 
fever”  must  not  be  forgotten  here.  House  birds  are  usually 
attacked  with  it  in  the  spring,  or  at  the  time  when  the  inclina- 
tion to  pair  is  greatest.  They  cease  to  sing,  become  sorrowful 
and  thin,  ruffle  their  feathers,  and  die.  This  fever  generally 
first  seizes  those  which  are  confined  in  cages;  it  appears  to 
arise  from  their  mode  of  life,  which  is  too  uniform  and  wearying. 
They  may  be  cured  merely  by  placing  them  in  the  window, 
where  they  are  soon  so  much  refreshed  that  they  forget  their 
grief,  their  desire  for  liberty,  or  for  pairing,  and  resume  their  j 
liveliness  and  song. 

It  has  been  observed  that  a s.-ngle  female  in  the  room  is 
sufficient  to  cause  this  disease  to  all  the  males  of  the  same 
family,  though  of  different  species.  Removing  the  female  will 
cure  them  directly.  The  males  and  females,  at  this  season, 
must  be  separated,  so  that  they  cannot  see  nor  hear  one  another. 
This,  perhaps,  is  the  reason  that  a male,  when  put  in  the 
window,  is  soon  cured. 

^ Parasitic  Vermin. — If  birds  are  sometimes  restless,  especially  ^ ^ 

is®, -$®1 


INTRODUCTION. 


25 


of  a niglit,  and  if  they  are  observed  to  be  frequently  feeling 
with  their  beaks  about  the  abdomen,  back,  or  wings,  they  must 
be  examined  to  see  if  no  small  yellow  insects,  (lice  or  mites,) 
may  be  discovered  upon  the  body,  or  between  the  feathers. 
If  this  be  the  case,  they  must  be  sprinkled  by  means  of  a small 
syringe  with  water,  in  which  quicksilver  has  been  steeped,  or 
with  a much  diluted  infusion  of  tobacco,  for  several  suc- 
cessive days,  whereby  these  vermin  are  destroyed  or  chased 
away.  Another  mode  of  getting  rid  of  the  lice  is  to  bathe  the 
birds  frequently,  and  to  give  them,  daily,  fresh  or  dry  sand, 
and  to  be  very  particular  in  keeping  them  exceedingly  clean. 

Unnatural  Fatness. — If  it  be  found  that  the  birds  become 
unnaturally  fat,  which  is  often  the  case,  especially  during 
autumn,  in  some  species  of  warblers,  their  too  nutritious  food 
must  be  changed  and  Swedish  turnips,  (ruta-bagas,)  be  mixed 
in  it,  and  dry  ants’  eggs  put  into  their  drink,  which  much 
checks  their  corpulency. 


2 


THE  CANARY  BIRD. 


Synonymes. 


Fringilla  canaria , . . 
Serin  de  Canarie,  . . 
Canarienvogel,  . . . 

Canario, 

Canarino, 

Canaiy  Bird,  Canary,  . 


, Op  ORNITHOLOGISTS. 
Op  the  French. 

Oy  the  Germans. 

I Of  hie  Spaniards 
\ and  Portuguese. 

Of  the  Italians.. 

$ Of  the  British  and 
\ Anglo-Americans* 


& 


HE  Canary  bird,  from  its  beautiful  plumage,  elegant 
shape,  singular  capacity,  and  attractive  familiarity,  as 
well  as  from  the  charms  and  melodies  with  which  it 
enlivens  our  rooms,  has  always  been  agreeable  to  the  fancier, 
and  may,  emphatically  be  called  the  real  u cage  bird.”  Some 
of  them  we  find  melancholy,  others  cheerful ; some  angry, 
others  peaceful ; some  intelligent,  others  dull ; some  indus- 
trious, others  idle ; some  greedy,  others  frugal.  But  they  have 
chiefly  made  themselves  beloved  by  their  animated,  powerful, 
and  varied  song,  which  lasts  almost  throughout  the  whole 
year,  and  with  some  even  during  the  time  of  moulting.  4 ^ 


THE  CANARY  BIRD. 


27 


These  birds  are  also  distinguished  by  their  correctness  of 
ear,  the  remarkable  skill  they  possess  of  imitating  all  tones, 
and  their  excellent  memory.  Not  only  do  they  imitate  the 
notes  of  other  birds,  which  they  greatly  improve  by  mixing 
them  with  their  own,  but  they  will  even  learn  to  utter  short 
words  with  some  degree  of  correctness.  In  their  wild  and 
undomesticated  state,  their  song  is  unvaried,  as  with  most  other 
birds,  less  melodious,  of  fewer  notes,  and  uttered  at  longer 
intervals  than  with  us ; at  least,  I found  them  so,  as  far  as  my 
observation  extended,  when  a resident  of  the  Canary  Isles. 


ORIGIN  AND  HISTORY. 

Those  birds,  from  which  are  descended  the  Canaries  now 
kept  and  reared  throughout  the  whole  of  Europe,  and  even  in 
Russia  and  Siberia,  as  well  as  in  various  parts  of  North  and 
South  America,  in  an  unadulterated  state,  are  natives  of  the 
Canary  Islands,  where  they  breed  in  pleasant  valleys,  and  on 
the  delightful  banks  of  small  rills,  or  streams.  They  were 
known  in  Europe  as  long  ago  as  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  as  we  are  told,  concerning  their  arrival,  that,  “ A ship, 
which,  in  addition  to  other  merchandize,  had  a multitude  of 
Canaries  on  board,  that  were  consigned  to  Leghorn,  was 
wrecked  on  the  coast  of  Italy,  and  the  birds,  thereby  obtaining 
their  liberty,  flew  to  the  nearest  land.”  This  happened  to  be 
Elba,  where  they  found  so  propitious  a climate,  that  they  multi- 
plied without  the  intervention  of  man,  and  probably  would 
have  naturalised  themselves,  had  not  the  wish  to  possess  them 
been  so  great  as  to  occasion  them  to  be  hunted  after  until  they 
were  entirely  extirpated.  In  Italy,  therefore,  we  find  the  first 
tame  Canaries,  where  they  are  still  raised  in  great  numbers. 
At  first,  their  rearing  in  Europe  was  attended  with  con- 
siderable difficulty,  partly  because  the  mode  of  treating 
these  delicate  strangers  was  not  sufficiently  understood,  but 
principally  because  males,  chiefly,  and  not  females,  were 
introduced. 


colored,  and  eight  lines  high.  The  female  is  scarcely  to  be 
distinguished  from  the  male,  but  the  latter  has  generally  deeper 
and  brighter  colors ; the  head  is  rather  thicker ; the  body,  in 
A general,  more  slender  throughout;  and  the  temples  and  the 


THE  CANARY  BIRD. 


DESCRIPTION. 


The  Canary  bird  is  five  inches  in  length,  of  which  the  tail 
comprises  two  inches  and  a quarter;  the  beak  is  five  lines 
long,  stout,  sharply  pointed,  and  whitish;  the  legs  are  flesh- 


THE  CANARY  BIRD. 


space  around  the  eyes,  are  always  of  a brighter  yellow  than 
the  rest  of  the  body. 

The  original  grey  color  of  this  bird,  which  merges  into  green 
beneath,  has,  by  means  of  domestication,  climate,  and  inter- 
mixture with  other  birds,  become  so  multifarious,  that  Canaries 
may  now  be  met  with  of  almost  every  hue ; but  grey,  yellow, 
white,  blackish  and  reddish-brown,  are  the  prevailing  colors, 
which  are  individually  seen  in  every  degree  of  shade,  or  com- 
bination, and  thus  present  innumerable  differences.  Those 
which  are  of  a blackish-grey,  or  greyish-brown,  above,  with 
greenish-yellow  beneath,  like  a greenfinch,  are  the  most  com- 
mon, generally  the  strongest,  and  approach  the  most  closely 
to  the  original  color  of  their  primogenitors.  The  yellow  and 
white  ones  have  usually  red  eyes,  but  are  more  delicate.  The 
chestnut-colored  are  the  most  rare,  and  in  strength  and  length 
of  life  are  intermediate.  The  colors  of  most  Canaries  consist 
of  a mixture  of  these,  and  that  bird  is  the  most  prized  the  more 
regularly  it  exhibits  the  combination  of  these  various  shades. 
That  which  is  most  generally  admired,  at  present,  is  one  with 
yellow,  or  w'hite,  upon  the  body,  and  of  a dun-yellow  color  on 
the  wings,  head,  and  tail.  Next  in  degree  of  beauty,  is  that 
which  is  of  a golden  yellow,  with  a black,  blue,  or  blackish- 
grey  head,  and  similar  wings  and  tail.  There  are  also  blackish 
or  grey  ones,  with  yellow  heads,  or  with  a ring  about  the  neck, 
white,  with  brown  and  black  markings,  ashy-grey,  almost 
black,  with  a yellew  breast,  and  white  head  and  tail,  all  of 
which  have  a prominent  value.  Others,  which  are  irregularly 
marked,  and  are  variegated,  or  mottled,  are  less  esteemed. 


HYBHIDITY. 

As  remarked  in  a preceding  page,  the  original  color  of  the 
Canary  bird  is  grey,  which  merges  into  green  beneath,  almost 
resembling  the  colors  of  the  linnet ; but  by  means  of  domes- 
tication, climate,  and  intermixture  with  other  birds,  as  the 

tcitril  finch  and  serin,  of  Italy,  and  with  the  Siskin  and  linnet,  ^ 

«®I 


THE  CANARY  BIRD. 


f 30 


f 


of  Germany,  they  have  become  so  multifarious,  that  they  are 
to  be  met  with  of  almost  every  color  and  hue.  Furthermore, 
in  Europe,  there  are  societies  for  promoting  the  breeds,  and 
premiums  are  awarded  to  competitors  who  come  nearest  to  the 
model  of  perfection  given  out  for  competition.  The  hybrids 
produced  by  crossing  the  Canary  with  other  birds,  most  in 
favor,  may  be  described  as  follows : — 

1.  The  Cross  between  the  Canary  and  Goldfinch. — The  colors 
of  this  variety  consist  of  a very  beautiful  intermixture  of  those 
of  both  parents.  One  which  has  been  highly  prized,  was 
marked  in  the  middle  of  the  crest  with  ashy-grey ; the  rest  of 
the  head,  and  the  upper  part  of  the  neck,  was  of  a silvery 
white,  with  a bright  orange-red  ring  round  the  base  of  the 
beak,  and  another  ring  of  snowy  whiteness  round  the  neck ; 
the  back  was  greyish-brown,  striped  with  black ; the  rump, 
white ; the  under  part  of  the  body,  snow-white ; the  vent,  the 
wings,  and  the  first  pinion  feathers,  were  also  white ; the  rest, 
as  well  as  the  coverts,  black,  edged  with  yellow,  and  with  a 
golden-yellow  spot  in  the  centre  of  the  wings;  the  tail  was 
white,  with  a black  lateral  spot ; the  beak  and  feet,  white,  the 
former  with  a black  tip.  The  mother  of  this  fine  bird  was 
white,  with  a greenish  crest.  In  general,  the  handsomest 
varieties  are  produced  when  yellow  or  white  Canaries  are 
pared  with  goldfinches. 

2.  The  Cross  between  the  Canary  and  the  Siskin. — This  is  per- 
fectly like  the  female  Siskin,  if  the  male  bird  is  a green 
Canary,  but  if  the  latter  be  white  or  yellow,  it  becomes 
rather  brighter  and  always  retains  the  color  and  figure  of  the 
Siskin. 

3.  The  Cross  between  the  Canary  and  the  Serin  is  distinguished 
only  by  its  smaller  size,  and  by  its  short,  thick,  beak,  from  the 
common  grey  or  green  Canary,  unless  produced  by  a white  or 
yellow  hen. 

The  Cross  between  the  Canary  and  the  Linnet. — When  the 
offspring  of  a grey  Canary,  its  only  difference  is  a slightly 
longer  tail ; but  it  is  variegated  or  speckled  when  the  Canary 
1 is  yellow  or  white. 


-4m 


THE  CANARY  BIRD. 


PAIRING-  AND  LAYING-. 


In  order  to  obtain  birds  of  a brilliant  plumage,  it  is  requisite 
to  pair  together  such  as  are  of  similar  markings,  and  the  colors 
of  which  are  regular  and  distinct.  This  is  best  effected  in 
separate  breeding  cages.  Variegated  and  checkered  ones  are 
often  produced  in  aviaries  where  the  birds  pair  together  indis- 
criminately. Those  of  a greenish  and  brownish  color,  paired 
with  bright-yellow  ones,  often  produce  beautiful  dusky-white, 
or  other  favorite  colors.  A requisite  precaution  to  be  ob- 
served is,  that  a tufted  and  a smooth-headed  bird  should  be 
paired  together;  for,  if  two  crested  ones  be  placed  with 
one  another,  a part  of  the  head  of  their  progeny  will  be  bald, 
or  otherwise  deformed. 

Some  males  are  always  dejected,  sing  but  little,  are  indiffer- 
ent to  their  mates,  and  conseqpently  unfit  for  breeding;  others 
are  too  choleric,  incessantly  snap  at,  and  chase  about,  the 
females,  and  indeed,  often  kill  them  and  their  young ; others, 
again,  are  too  ardent,  persecute  the  female  while  she  is  sitting, 
tear  the  nest,  throw  out  the  eggs,  or  continually  excite  her  to 
pair,  until  she  quits  her  eggs  or  neglects  her  young ; others,  in 
breeding  time,  sing  so  incessantly,  and  so  powerfully,  that 
they  rupture  the  small  vessels  of  the  lungs,  and  suddenly  drop 
dead  in  the  midst  of  their  song. 

The  females  have  also  their  defects.  Some  merely  lay,  and 
immediately  quit  their  eggs  as  soon  as  laid ; others  feed  their 
young  badly,  bite  them,  or  pluck  out  their  feathers ; others  lay 
with  much  exertion  and  labor,  and  when  they  should  hatch 
become  sickly,  or  lay  again  after  a long  interval. 

Those  birds  which  are  to  be  paired  for  the  first  time,  should 
be  placed  together  in  a small  cage  or  an  open  room  for  a 
week  or  ten  days,  to  be  wonted  to  one  another.  If  two  females 
are  to  be  paired  with  one  male,  they  must  previously  be  ac- 
customed to  each  other’s  society  by  being  also  kept  together 
in  a small  cage;  and  the  breeding  cage  should  have  two 
compartments,  separated  by  a board,  in  which  a sliding 


f 32 


®w> 


THE  CANARY  BIRD. 


lias  been  made.  In  one  compartment,  a lively  male  may  be 
enclosed  with  a female.  About  the  cage  or  room,  there  should 
be  placed  some  flax,  soft  hay,  wool,  hog’s  bristles,  cow’s  hair, 
moss,  pieces  of  thread,  cut  about  a finger’s  length,  paper, 
shavings,  or  other  dry  materials  for  building  the  nest,  which 
usually  occupies  three  days.  When  one  female  has  laid  eggs, 
the  sliding  door  may  be  moved  and  the  male  admitted  to  the 
other  female ; and  when  they  have  both  laid,  this  door  may  be 


kept  open.  The  male  will  visit  both  females  alternately,  when 
they  will  not  trouble  themselves  about  each  other ; otherwise, 
without  this  precaution,  jealousy  would  incite  them  to  destroy 
each  other’s  nests  and  throw  out  the  eggs.  In  a room  or 
aviary,  a male  has  sometimes  two  and  even  three  females 
placed  with  him ; with  one  of  these,  he  will  more  especially 
pair.  But  when  this  favorite  is  about  to  sit,  the  others  will 
receive  a share  of  his  attentions,  and  from  the  latter  usually 
^ the  greatest  number  and  the  best  birds  are  reared. 


CANARY  BREEDING  CAGE. 


DJ*- 


THE  CANARY  BIRD. 


The  female,  as  with  the  majority  of  birds,  is  usually  the 
architect,  the  male  only  selecting  the  place  and  procurng 
materials,  the  coarser  of  which  is  used  for  the  external  struc- 
ture, and  the  finer  for  lining  the  inside  of  the  nest.  The 
females  will  sometimes  show  indications  of  their  instinct  by 
building  nests  after  their  own  fashion,  generally  being  irregu- 
lar in  figure,  and  not  nicely  finished,  at  least  externally.  It  is 
in  the  nest  itself,  where  the  pairing  takes  place,  the  female 
attracting  the  male  by  a continuous  piping  note,  repeated  more 
quickly  the  nearer  she  is  to  laying.  An  interval  of  seven  or 
eight  days  elapses  between  the  first  pairing  and  laying  the 
first  egg.  Every  day  afterwards,  nearly  at  the  same  hour,  an 
egg  is  laid,  the  number  varying  from  two  to  six. 


BREEDING-,  INCUBATION,  ETC. 

The  month  of  March  is  the  best  time  to  place  the  birds  in 
the  breeding  cage.  Of  these,  there  are  two  kinds,  either  a 
large  one,  made  of  wire,  as  is  shown  at  page  15,  in  which  it  is 
better  to  place  a male,  and  one  female,  than  one  male  and 
two  females  together,  like  the  one  shown  in  the  preceding  page ; 
or  the  birds  may  have  range  of  an  entire  room.  All  breeding 
places  must  be  exposed  to  the  warmth  and  light  of  the  sun, 
and  be  hung  about  with  nests  made  of  turned  wood,  tin,  or 
little  wicker  baskets,  two  for  each  pair. 

When  a room  is  allotted  to  the  purpose,  it  ought  to  contain 
shrubs  for  the  birds  to  perch  or  build  upon,  with  a plenty  of 
fresh  water  to  drink  and  bathe  in,  that  being  indispensable  for 
all  birds.  The  light  should  be  admitted  into  the  east  or  south- 
east, for  the  benefit  of  the  morning  sun,  and  the  windows 
should  have  wire  cloth  over  them,  that  the  birds  may  enjoy  the 
fresh  air.  The  floor  of  the  apartment  should  be  strewed  with 
clean  gravel  or  sand,  on  which  should  be  thrown  celery  or 
chickweed;  but  when  breeding,  they  should  have  nothing 
except  hard-chopped  eggs,  dried  roll,  cake  without  salt,  and 
once  in  two  orjfiree  days  a few  poppy  seeds. 


34 


THE  CANARY  BIRD. 


When  the  birds  are  good  breeders,  it  is  needless  to  attempt 
to  assist  nature  by  artificial  means ; and  it  is  best  to  leave  the 
them  entirely  to  themselves.  In  other  cases,  it  is  customary  to 
remove  the  first  egg,  and  replace  it  by  an  ivory  one,  placing  it 
in  a box  filled  with  clean,  dry  sand,  and  so  taking  away  all 
the  eggs  till  the  last  one  is  laid ; all  are  then  returned  to  the 
nest  to  be  hatched.  They  often  lay  three  or  four  times  a-year, 
from  February  to  September,  and  some  are  so  assiduous  in 
pairing,  that  even  moulting  does  not  interrupt  them.  The 
eggs  are  of  a sea-green  color,  marked  on  one  end  with  reddish- 
brown  or  violet  spots  or  stripes.  The  period  of  incubation 
lasts  thirteen  days. 

If,  from  the  sicklines-s  of  the  male,  or  of  the  female,  any  of 
the  eggs  are  unimpregnated,  they  must  be  taken  out  of  the 
nest  when  the  hen  has  sat  for  a week  or  ten  days,  held  lightly 
between  the  fingers  in  the  sunshine,  or  in  a bright  light ; the 
fecundated  ones  will  then  appear  filled  with  veins,  while  the 
bad  ones  will  be  quite  clear,  or  already  addled,  the  latter  of 
which  must  be  thrown  away.  The  male  rarely  relieves  the 
female  in  hatching,  nor  does  she  very  willingly  permit  it. 
Immediately  after  feeding,  she  returns  to  the  eggs,  and  should 
the  male  perchance  be  on  the  nest  at  the  time,  if  he  should  not 
directly  quit,  he  would  speedily  Jbe  compelled  to  do  so  by 
pecks  and  blows.  The  young  are  occasionally  killed  in  the 
egg,  in  consequence  of  loud  and  near  noises,  such  as  heavy 
thunder,  the  discharge  of  fire  arms,  violently  slamming  the 
door,  or  any  other  very  loud  knocking. 


FEEDING-  AND  REARING  THE  YOUNG. 

As  soon  as  the  young  are  hatched,  the  old  birds  should  be 
supplied  with  one  fourth  of  a hard-boiled  egg,  minced  very 
fine,  with  some  dried  roll,  or  bread,  containing  no  salt, 
steeped  in  water,  the  latter  of  which  should  be  squeezed 
or  pressed  out  again.  In  another  vessel,  some  boiled  rape 
^ seed  should  be  placed,  which  has  been  re  washed  in  fresh  ^ 
49»  I 


THE  CANARY  BIRD. 


35  f 


water,  to  take  away  the  acidity.  Some  use  crackers  instead  of 
bread,  but  this  is  unnecessary.  It  is  merely  requisite  to  see 
that  this  soft  food  does  not  become  sour,  otherwise  it  will  kill 
the  young,  and  the  cause  remain  unsuspected.  Some  persons 
merely  give  them  their  usual  food,  intermixing  it  with  some 
finely-powdered  crackers  and  hard-boiled  eggs,  but  it  has  been 
found  by  experience,  that  the  diet  prescribed  above  is  more 
efficacious,  especially  until  the  young  are  fledged. 

It  is  now  that  the  male  takes  the  chief  part  in  rearing  the 
young;  and  upon  him  devolves  the  duty  of  feeding  them,  in 
order  to  allow  the  female  to  recover  from  the  exhaustion  she 
has  received  from  incubation. 

If  it  is  necessary  to  feed  the  young  by  hand,  grated  roll  or 
pulverised  dry  crackers  is  taken,  mixed  with  pounded  rape 
seed,  and  kept  in  a box.  As  often  as  it  is  necessary  to  feed 
them,  a little  of  it  is  moistened  with  some  of  the  yolk  of  an 
egg  and  water,  and  given  to  them  from  a quill  pen.  This 
must  be  done  ten  or  twelve  times  a-day ; about  four  penfuls  is 
the  quantity  necessary  for  each  meal. 

Up  to  the  twelfth  day,  the  young  remain  almost  naked,  and 
require  to  be  covered  by  the  female ; but  after  the  thirteenth, 
they  will  feed  themselves.  In  cold,  dry  years,  however,  it 
sometimes  happens  that  the  birds  get  scarcely  any  plumage  at 
all.  When  they  are  a month  old,  they  may  be  removed  from 
the  breeding  cage.  With  the  usual  food  of  the  old  birds,  they 
must  be  fed  for  some  time  upon  the  kinds  above  named ; for, 
the  sudden  removal  from  soft  food  often  occasions  death,  espe- 
cially in  moulting.  It  is  asserted,  and  not  without  reason,  that 
those  Canaries  which  are  reared  in  an  arbor,  where  they  have 
space  to  fly  about  within  an  enclosure  of  wire,  are  longer-lived 
and  stronger  than  those  which  are  reared  in  a chamber  or  a 
confined  cage. 

It  is  a curious  fact,  perhaps  not  known  to  every  one,  that,  when 
there  are  two  females  with  one  male  in  a cage,  and  one  dies, 
the  other,  if  she  has  not  already  sat,  will  hatch  the  eggs  laid  by 
her  co-mate,  and  rear  the  young  as  her  own ; and,  during  this 
foster-mother  care,  cautiously  avoid  the  caresses  of  the  male ! 


£*>-■ 


36 


THE  CANARY  BIRD. 


TO  TEACH  A YOUNG-  CANARY  TO  SING-. 

When  the  young  birds  can  eat  alone,  say  at  the  age  of 
thirteen  or  fourteen  days,  and  often  before  quitting  the  nest, 
the  males  commence  warbling,  and  the  females,  also,  but  less 
connectedly  and  from  this,  the  sexes  may  be  distingnished. 

To  teach  a young  Canary  to  sing,  he  must  now  be  separated 
from  his  comrades,  as  well  as  from  other  birds,  and  placed  in  N 
a small  wire  cage,  which,  at  the  commencement,  must  be 
covered  with  linen,  and  subsequently,  by  degrees,  with  thicker 
woollen  cloth,  when  a short  air,  or  other  musical  piece,  must 
be  whistled  to  him,  or  a flute,  or  a small  organ  may  be  used. 

This  lesson  should  be  repeated  five  or  six  times  a-day,  espe- 
cially mornings  and  evenings,  and  in  five  or  six  months,  he 
will  be  able  to  acquire  the  air,  according  to  the  power  of  his 
memory. 


FOOD  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  ADULT  BIRDS. 

Except  during  the  breeding  season,  the  males  may  be  kept 
in  cages  either  bell-shaped  or  like  that  denoted  in  the  adjoin- 
ing cut.  These  may  be  made  of  wire  or  rattan,  and  should  be 
at  least  a foot  high  and  eight  inches  in  diameter,  with  one  or 
more  transverse  perches. 

The  female  is  allowed  either  to  have  freedom  in  the  room 
with  her  wings  clipped,  or  is  placed  in  a large  breeding  cage, 
possessing  sufficient  space  to  keep  her  limbs  in  constant 
exercise,  and  preserve  them  in  health  and  strength. 

In  the  bell-shaped,  or  smaller  cages,  wherein  it  must  be 
understood  only  one  male  should  be  put,  both  the  eating  and 
drinking  vessels  must  be  placed  on  the  outside,  at  the  ex- 
tremities of  the  lower  perch.  These  should  be  surrounded  by 
a cap  of  tin,  so  that  the  bird  may  not  easily  scatter  its  food. 
Cleanliness  will  often  prevent  these  delicate  songsters  from 
^ suffering  many  disorders,  and  it  is  very  desirable  that  the  ^ 

j|g§>- — 


THE  CANARY  BIRD. 


37 


floor  of  the  cage  should  be  made  movable,  that  it  may  be 
more  easily  cleansed  and  strewed  with  coarse  sand. 

Being  naturally  inhabitants  of  a warm  climate,  and  ren- 
dered delicate  by  constant  residence  in  rooms,  and  so,  in  a 
manner  habituated  to  a temperature  similar  to  that  of  their 
own  country,  great  care  is  necessary  in  winter,  in  order  that 
the  same  or  a similar  temperature  may  be  preserved,  avoiding 
the  exposure  to  cold  air,  which,  however,  refreshes  in  summer, 


cannot  be  otherwise  than  prejudicial  to  them,  causing  sickness 
and  even  death.  To  keep  these  birds  in  a healthy  and  happy 
frame,  it  is  very  important  to  observe  that,  in  summer,  they 
be  frequently  hung  in  a cage  in  brilliant  daylight,  and  if 
possible,  placed  in  the  warm  sunshine,  which,  especially  when 
bathing,  is  very  agreeable  to  them. 

The  most  important  consideration  in  the  managemen.  ol 
he  male  is  his  food.  The  more  simple  and  true  to  natun 


CANARY  BIRD  CAGE. 


38 


THE  CANARY  BIRD. 


this  is,  the  better  does  it  agree  with  him ; whereas,  when  too 
artificially  compounded,  it  renders  him  sickly  and  weak.  The 
best  food  is  the  “ summer  rape  seed,”  which  is  sown  in 
spring.  This  is  distinguished  from  the  “ winter  rape  seed,” 
which  is  sown  in  autumn,  by  being  larger  and  of  a darker  hue. 

On  this  diet,  these  birds  thrive  very  well,  but  it  should  be  * 
occasionally  intermixed  with  some  crushed  hemp  seed  and 
Canary  seed,  for  the  sake  of  flavoring  it ; and  this  more  espe- 
cially in  the  spring,  when  they  are  intended  for  breeding.  As 
a treat,  we  may  occasionally  give  them  a mixture  of  summer 
cabbage  seed,  whole  oats  or  oatmeal,  with  millet,  or  some 
Canary  seed.  Here,  as  in  most  other  cases,  we  should  strive 
to  imitate  nature. 

The  hen  Canaries  may  likewise  be  supplied  with  the  same 
kind  of  food  as  the  males ; but  in  winter,  they  are  content  with 
bread,  containing  no  salt,  or  merely  barley  grots,  moistened  in 
milk,  if  given  to  them  fresh  every  day,  without  being  sour. 
Besides,  both  males  and  females  may  be  given,  in  summer, 
some  green  lettuce,  cabbage,  groundsel,  and  water  cresses, 
which  must  be  previously  washed  and  cleansed  from  anything 
prejudicial;  and  in  winter,  they  may  be  fed  with  pieces  of 
sweet  apples.  They  require  fresh  water  daily,  both  for 
drinking  and  bathing;  and  at  moulting  time,  a rusty  nail 
should  be  occasionally  placed  in  their  drinking  vessel,  as  this 
tends  to  strengthen  the  stomach. 


TO  TEACH  THE  ADULT  BIRDS  TO  FLY. 


Canaries  may  be  taught  to  fly ; but  the  trouble  and  risk  are 
so  great  that  it  is  hardly  worth  the  time  and  care  necessary  to 
teach  them.  The  male  is  first  allowed  its  liberty  in  a place 
where  there  are  trees,  and  the  female  is  hung  at  a window, 
near  by,  which  speedily  attracts  him  back  to  the  cage  in  case 
of  danger  or  fatigue.  This  teaching  must  be  continued  for 
five  or  six  days,  but  no  handling  nor  violent  attempts  to  catch 
them  should  be  used. 


THE  CANARY  EIRD. 


-~40g 
39  1 


DISEASES. 

The  Canary  bird,  in  a state  of  captivity,  seldom  enjoying  the 
open  air  and  having  but  little  exercise,  is  subject  to  most  of 
the  maladies  peculiar  to  the  domestic,  feathered  race.  The 
diseases  to  which  it  is  particularly  liable,  may  be  described 
and  treated  as  follows : — 

1.  Rupture . — This  is  a common  malady,  especially  in  young 
birds,  and  is  a kind  of  indigestion  which  causes  inflammation 
of  the  intestines.  The  symptoms  of  this  disease  are  a lean, 
transparent,  blown-up  body,  full  of  small  red  veins,  and  in 
which  all  the  intestines  seem  to  have  fallen  to  the  lower  part 
of  the  body,  where  they  become  entangled  and  turned  black. 
Too  much  nutritious  food  is  the  cause  of  this  evil.  All  reme- 
dies appear  to  have  been  ineffectual  in  this  malady,  but 
assistance  is  sometimes  obtained  from  a spare  and  simple 
diet. 

2.  The  Yellow  Gall  in  the  Head  and  Eyes  may  be  cured  by 
refreshing  food;  but  if  there  be  a tubercle  of  the  size  of  a 
hemp  seed  about  the  head  or  eyes,  it  must  be  cut  off,  and  the 
wound  anointed  with  fresh  butter. 

3.  Sweating. — Some  females,  whilst  hatching,  have  a sweat- 
ing sickness,  which  is  injurious  to  the  blood,  and  may  be 
detected  by  the  feathers  of  the  lower  part  of  the  body  being 
quite  wet.  The  body  of  the  bird  should  be  washed  with  brine, 
and  afterwards  with  rain  or  spring  water  to  free  the  feathers 
of  salt,  and  then  rapidly  dried  by  the  sun  or  fire.  This  may 
be  repeated  once  or  twice  a-day.  This  sickness,  however,  is 
not  so  prejudicial  to  the  bird  as  is  generally  supposed, 

4.  Sneezing. — This  is  occasioned  by  a stoppage  of  the  nos- 
trils, and  may  be  removed  by  a very  small  feather  dipped  in 
olive  oil  being  passed  through  them. 

5.  Loss  of  Voice. — If  the  male,  after  moulting,  lose  his  voice, 
he  must  have  diet  similar  to  that  given  to  young  birds ; that  is, 
some  thoroughly-baked,  stale  roll,  dipped  in  boiled  milk  or 

^ water  until  completely  saturated ; then  press  out  the  milk  and 




THE  CANARY  BIRD. 


6a 

¥ 40 


mix  it  with  more  or  less,  say  a proportion  of  two  thirds  of 
coarse  barley  or  wheat  flour,  freed  from  the  husk  or  bran. 
Some  persons  give  them  a slice  of  pork  or  bacon  to  peck. 

6.  Constipation  is  cured  by  giving  them  plenty  of  green  food, 
such  as  celery,  water  cresses,  chickweed,  sallad,  &c. 

7.  Epilepsy  is  commonly  brought  on  by  too  great  a delicacy 
of  treatment,  and  also  by  timidity,  from  alarm.  Too  great  an 
abundance  of  rich  food,  and  the  want  of  proper  exercise, 
whereby  much  and  thick  blood  is  produced,  are  the  chief 
causes  of  this  disease.  The  birds  ought  to  be  kept  free  from 
alarm,  either  by  catching  or  tormenting  them  in  any  way. 
When  suffering  under  this  complaint,  if  they  are  hot,  it  is 
recommended  to  dip  them  frequently  into  cold  ice  water,  and 
then  pair  their  nails  so  closely  as  to  start  blood.  A few  drops 
of  olive  oil,  also,  given  internally  have  proved  serviceable. 

8.  Overgrown  Claios  or  Beaks  require  to  be  pared  with  sharp 
scissors.  Care  must  be  taken,  however,  not  to  cut  the  nails 
too  close,  as  the  birds  would  be  liable  to  lose  so  much  blood 
as  to  become  lame.  The  end  of  the  “ red  ray,”  or  vein,  both  in 
the  beak  and  claws,  when  held  up  to  the  light,  shows  exactly 
how  far  they  may  be  cut.  During  the  hatching  period,  also, 
the  nails  of  the  female  sometimes  must  be  cut,  in  order  that 
they  may  not  be  caught  by  them  when  in  the  nest. 

9.  Lice  may  be  avoided  by  frequent  bathing,  cleanliness  in 
the  cage,  and  dry  sand  mixed  with  anise  seed  and  scattered  on 
the  floor. 


V 


THE  GOLDFINCH. 


Synonymes. 


Vringilla  carduelis , 
Chardonneret, 

Distelfink,  Stieglitz, 
Jilguero, 

Pinta^ilgo, 

Calderino, 

Goldfinch,  Thistle  Finch, 


Of  Ornithologists. 
Of  the  French. 

Of  the  Germans. 

Of  the  Spaniards. 
Of  the  Portuguese, 
Of  the  Italians. 

{ Of  the  British  and 
\ Anglo-Americans. 


A 


F all  cage  birds,  this  is  one  of  the  most  delightful, 
alike  from  the  beauty  of  its  plumage  and  the  excel- 
lence of  its  song,  its  proved  docility,  and  remarkable 
animation,  whose  body  is  almost  always  in  incessant  motion — 
now  moving  to  the  right  and  now  to  the  left.  Its  song  is 
shrill,  agreeable,  and  heard  during  all  seasons,  excepting  only 
at  the  period  of  moulting.  It  contains,  besides  many  warbling 
and  twittering  notes,  on  which  it  dwells  more  or  less,  and  the 
oftener  the  syllable  fink  is  repeated  the  more  it  is  admired. 
Some  utter  these  notes  only  once  or  twice  in  their  song,  and 
others  four  or  five  times  in  succession.  They  also  repeat  airs, 
and  the  songs  of  other  birds,  but  with  difficulty ; for  they  have 
not  the  same  capacity  as  linnets  and  Canaries  for  these 
acquisitions. 

Their  docility  is  extraordinary,  for  they  will  even  learn  to 
fire  small  cannons  and  imitate  death.  They  may  also  be 
taught  to  draw  up  their  food  and  water  in  a little  bucket. 

— $£ 


42 


THE  GOLDFINCH. 


Mr.  Syme,  in  his  excellent  treatise  on  British  Song  Birds, 
gives  the  following  amusing  particulars  respecting  this  spe- 
cies : — “ The  goldfinch  is  easily  tamed  and  easily  taught,  and 
its  capability  of  learning  the  notes  of  other  birds  is  well 
known ; hut  the  tricks  it  may  be  taught  to  perform  are  truly 
astonishing.  A few  years  ago,  the  Sieur  Roman  exhibited  his 
birds,  which  were  goldfinches,  linnets,  and  Canaries.  One 
appeared  dead,  and  was  held  up  by  the  tail  or  claws  without 
exhibiting  any  signs  of  life ; a second  stood  on  its  head  with  its 
claws  in  the  air;  a third  imitated  a Dutch  milkmaid  going  to 
market  with  pails  on  its  shoulders;  a fourth  mimicked  a 
Venetian  girl  looking  out  at  a window;  a fifth  appeared  as  a 
soldier,  and  mounted  guard  as  a sentinel ; and  the  sixth  acted 
as  cannoneer,  with  a cap  on  its  head,  a firelock  on  its 
shoulder,  and  a match  in  its  claws,  and  discharged  a small 
cannon.  The  same  bird  also  acted  as  if  it  had  been 
wounded.  It  was  wheeled  in  a barrow,  to  convey  it,  as  it 
were,  to  the  hospital,  after  which  it  flew  away  before  the 
company.  The  seventh  turned  a kind  of  windmill ; and  the 
last  bird  stood  in  the  midst  of  some  fireworks,  which  were 
discharged  all  round  it,  and  this  without  exhibiting  the  least 
symptom  of  fear.” 

The  Goldfinch  is  very  generally  distributed  throughout 
Europe,  occurring  in  most  of  the  wooded  and  cultivated  dis- 
tricts. Its  song  commences  about  the  end  of  March,  and  con- 
tinues till  July  or  August.  It  may  often  be  found  in  company 
with  linnets,  whose  flight  it  somewhat  resembles. 


DESCRIPTION. 

The  goldfinch  is  five  inches  and  three  quarters  long,  of  which 
the  tail  occupies  two  inches.  The  beak  is  five  lines  long, 
sharply  pointed,  and  very  slightly  bent,  compressed  at  the 
sides,  whitish,  with  a horn-colored  tip;  the  slender  feet  are 
brownish,  and  six  lines  high ; the  front  of  the  head  is  of  a 
^ bright  scarlet  red;  a broad  margin  of  a similar  color  surrounds  X 

ib»- 


THE  GOLDFINCH. 


the  base  of  the  beak;  the  chin  and  reins,  black;  the  vertex 
black,  terminating*  in  a stripe,  which  passes  the  back  of  the 
head,  and  descends  the  neck  on  each  side ; on  the  top  of  the 
neck,  there  is  a white  spot ; the  cheeks  and  front  of  the  neck, 
white;  the  back  of  the  neck  and  back  are  of  a beautiful 
brown ; the  rump  whitish,  with  a brownish  tinge ; the  longer 
feathers  are  black ; both  sides  of  the  breast  and  the  flanks  of  a 
bright-brown;  the  middle  of  the  breast,  the  belly,  and  the 
vent,  whitish,  many  of  the  feathers  having  a brownish  tinge ; 
the  thighs,  greyish;  the  pinion  feathers,  velvet-black,  with 
whitish  tips,  which  are  smallest  in  old  birds,  and  are  sometimes 
wanting  in  the  first  two  feathers;  the  middle  of  the  external 


THE  GOLDFINCH. 


web  with  a golden-colored  stripe  an  inch  long,  which,  in  con- 
junction with  the  golden  yellow  tips  of  the  hinder  large  coverts, 
forms  a beautiful  spot ; the  coverts  otherwise  black ; the  tail 
slightly  forked  and  black;  the  two,  and  sometimes  the  first 
three  pinion  feathers  having  a white  spot  in  the  centre  of  the 
inner  web ; the  rest  with  white  tips;  sometimes  also  the  third 
is  likewise  entirely  black  at  the  sides. 

The  female  is  a little  smaller,  not  so  broadly  and  beautifully 
red  about  the  beak ; the  chin  brownish  ; the  cheeks  intermixed 
with  bright-brown ; the  small  coverts  of  the  wings,  brown,  and 
the  back  of  a deeper  dark-brown. 

BREEDING. 

The  female  goldfinch  rarely  lays  more  than  once  a-year, 
(consequently  these  birds  do  not  greatly  multiply,)  and  then  4 ± 

— — — — — — 


44 


THE  GOLDFINCH. 


from  four  to  six  eggs,  which  upon  a pale  sea-green  ground  are 
marked  with  pale-red  spots  and  dots,  and  deep-red  stripes.  The 
young  are  fed  from  the  crop.  These,,  before  they  first  moult, 
are  grey  upon  the  head.  They  can  be  reared  upon  poppy 
seeds  and  roll  steeped  in  milk  or  water.  They  have  greater 
facility  in  imitating  the  song  of  the  Canary  than  that  of  any 
other  bird ; and  with  this  bird  they  will  produce  fertile  hybrids. 
To  effect  this,  a male  goldfinch  is  placed  with  one  or  two  hen 
Canaries,  and  they  very  readily  pair,  especially  if  the  goldfinch 
has  been  reared  from  the  nest.  The  birds  which  spring  from 
this  union  are  not  only  beautiful  in  color  and  plumage — often 
yellow,  with  the  head,  wings,  and  tail  of  the  goldfinch — but 
they  will  be  found  to  excel  in  the  sweetness  and  variety  of 
their  song.  If  you  are  apprehensive  that  a pair  of  valuable 
Canaries  will  not  thoroughly  hatch  their  eggs,  nor  let  their 
young  ones  die,  remove  them  to  the  nest  of  a goldfinch ; they 
will  not  only  hatch  them,  but  will  also  feed  the  young,  which, 
when  nearly  full  fledged,  may  be  placed  in  a cage  until  they 
can  feed  themselves,  when  no  further  trouble  attends  their 
rearing. 

The  characteristics  which  mark  the  principal  varieties  of 
this  species  are  as  follows : — 

1.  Goldfinch  with  a yellow  breast. 

2.  The  White-headed  Goldfinch. 

3.  The  Black-headed  Goldfinch . 

4.  The  White  Goldfinch. 

5.  The  Black  Goldfinch. 

The  latter  are  either  entirely  black,  which  is  caused  by 
age  or  in  being  fed  upon  hemp  seed,  or  they  retain  the  yellow 
spots  on  the  wings.  Mr.  Shelbach,  of  Cassel,  in  Germany^ 
reared  a nest  of  goldfinches,  which  he  kept  entirely  secluded 
from  the  light  of  the  sun,  covering  the  cage  with  cloth. 
These  birds  were  of  a jet-black,  with  yellow  spots,  but 
they  changed  color  after  moulting.  Those  goldfinches  which 
become  black  before  old  age,  usually  resume  their  former 
color  after  moulting,  but  then  they  do  not  usually  live  much 
1 longer.  , 

]§§$_ -<88 


45  f 


THE  GOLDFINCH. 


FOOD. 


The  goldfinch  feeds  up  n various  kinds  of  seeds,  groundsel, 
succory,  salad,  cabbage,  rape,  linseed,  Canary,  thistle,  and 
alder  seeds,  &c.  In  the  cage,  it  must  be  fed  upon  poppy  seed 
and  hemp  seed,  the  first  being  given  as  its  usual  food.  If 
allowed  to  run  freely  about,  it  will  accustom  itself  to  the 
second  description  of  universal  food  described  at  page  13.  It 
may  also  have  given  to  it  all  sorts  of  green  things,  such  as 
salad,  cabbage,  lettuce,  and  water  cresses.  It  eats  voraciously, 
and  therefore,  when  allowed  to  run  about  in  the  chamber, 
perches  upon  the  trough,  and  chases  away,  with  a threatening 
gesture,  every  bird  that  approaches;  whereas,  it  will  feed  with 
other  birds  that  have  any  kind  of  resemblance  to  it,  at  least 
with  respect  to  the  character  of  their  food,  such  as  Canary 
birds,  Siskins,  &c. 


These  birds  are  very  subject  to  epilepsy.  If  they  happen  to 
hav6  bad  and  swollen  eyes,  they  should  be.  anointed  with  fresh 
butter.  Heaviness  and  greediness,  occasioned  by  feeding  too 
exclusively  upon  hemp  seed,  may  be  removed  by  giving  them 
in  lieu  of  it  soaked  salad' and  thistle  seeds.  It  contributes 
much  to  their  health,  if  occasionally  supplied  with  the  head  of 
a thistle. 

In  old  age,  they  become  blind,  and  lose  the  beautiful  red 
and  yellow  colors  of  the  head  and  wings.  Although  frequently 
subject  to  sickness,  there  are  instances  of  their  having  lived  to 
the  age  of  sixteen  and  even  twenty-four  years. 


DISEASES. 


THE  LINNET. 


Synonymes. 


Fringilla  cannabina , 
Linot, 

Handing,  Lanning, 
Pardillo, 

Pintarroxo, 

Fanello, 

Linnet,  Brown  Linnet, 
Whin  Linnet,  Lintie, 
Greater  Red  Pole, 

Linnet, 


Op  Ornithologists. 
Of  the  French. 

Of  the  Germans. 

Of  the  Spaniards. 
Of  the  Portuguese. 
Of  the  Italians. 

Of  the  British. 

( Of  the  Anglo 
I Americans. 


«HE  linnet,  from  its  natural  flute-like  voice,  excels  most 
other  song  birds  in  its  power  of  beautifully  and 
purely  imitating  melodies  and  airs  which  are  piped 
to  it,  and  for  this  quality  it  is  especially  esteemed.  It  will 
also  learn  the  song  of  all  the  birds  in  the  room  or  cage 
that  it  hears.  Its  natural  song  consists  of  many  connected 
strophies,  and  is  the  more  beautiful  the  eftener  it  utters  some 
high-sounding  notes,  which  are  called  its  64  crowing,”  from  its 
resemblance  to  the  crowing  of  a cock.  It  sings  both  summer 
and  winter,  excepting  the  time  of  moulting. 


DESCRIPTION. 


The  length  of  this  bird  is  more  than  five  inches,  of  which  the 
tail  measures  two  inches  and  a half.  The.  beak,  six  lines  long, 
is  dusky-blue  in  summer,  and  in  winter  greyish-white,  with  the 


THE  LINNET. 


47 


point  brown ; the  iris  dark-brown ; the  feet,  eight  lines  high, 
are  black.  There  are  some  very  striking  varieties  produced 
by  the  season  and  age  in  the  plumage  of  the  male,  which  are 
not  observed  in  the  female,  and  these  have  caused  great  con- 
fusion in  works  on  birds. 

A male  three  years  old  or  less,  is  distinguished  in  spring  by 
the  following  colors,  and  by  the  name  of  44  red  pole : ” — The 
forehead  is  blood-red,  the  rest  of  tjie  head  reddish  ash-colored, 
the  top  rather  spotted  with  black ; the  cheek,  sides  of  the  neck, 
and  the  circle  round  the  eyes,  have  a reddish- white  tint ; the 
feathers  of  the  back  are  chestnut,  with  the  edges  lighter ; the 
upper  tail  coverts  are  black,  edged  with  reddish- white ; the 
throat  and  under  part  of  the  neck  are  yellowish-white,  with 
some  dashes  of  reddish-grey;  the  sides  of  the  breast  are 


blood-red,  ecged  with  reddish- white ; the  sides  of  the  belly  are 
pale  rust-colored ; the  rest  of  the  under  part  of  the  body  is 
reddish- white ; the  greater  wing  coverts  are  black,  bordered 
with  reddish- white ; the  others  are  rusty-brown  with  a lighter 
border.  The  quill  feathers  are  black,  tipped  with  white ; the 
first  are  edged  with  white  nearly  to  the  point ; the  narrow 
beard  forms  a parallel  white  streak  to  the  quill  feathers;  the 
tail  is  black  and  forked ; the  four  outer  feathers  on  both  sides 
haye  a broad  white  border ; that  of  the  two  middle  feathers  is 
narrower,  and  reddish- white. 

After  moulting,  in  autumn,  little  red  is  seen  on  the  forehead, 
because  the  feathers  become  colored  from  the  bottom  to  the  top ; 
the  breast  has  not  yet  acquired  its  red  tint,  for  the  white  border 
is  still  too  wide ; but  when  winter  comes,  its  colors  appear. 


THE  LINNET, 


48 


THE  LINNET. 


¥ 


Males  one  year  old  have  no  red  on  the  head,  and  more 
dashes  of  black;  the  breast  is  pale-red,  waved  with  pale  and 
dark ; the  under  part  of  the  feathers  on  the  breast  is  only  a 
bright,  reddish-grey  brown;  the  edges  of  these  feathers  are  of  a 
reddish-white;  the  back  rust-color,  having  detached  spots  of 
dark-brown  and  reddish-white.  These  birds  are  known  under 
the  name  of  “ grey  linnets.” 

After  the  second  moulting,  if  the  reddish-grey  feathers  are 
blown  aside,  blood-red  specks  may  be  discovered  on  the 
forehead,  and  the  red  of  the  breast  is  only  hidden  by  the 
wide  yellowish-white  borders  to  the  feathers;  these  are  the 
“ yellow  linnets,”  or  the  “rock  linnets,”  as  they  are  called  in 
Thuringia. 

Besides  these  three  different  varieties  of  plumage  of  the 
males,  there  are  several  clouded,  produced  by  the  seasons  and 
old  age ; for  instance,  the  older  they  become,  the  redder  the 
head  is.  Birds  brought  up  in  the  house  never  acquire  the  fine 
red  on  the  forehead  and  breast,  but  remain  grey  like  the  males 
of  one  year  old ; on  the  other  hand,  old  ones,  red  when  brought 
into  the  house,  lose  their  beautiful  colors  at  the  first  moulting, 
and  remaining  grey  like  the  young  ones,  are  no  more  than 
grey  linnets. 

This  difference  of  color  does  not  take  place  in  the  females, 
which  are  smaller  than  the  males;  the  upper  part  of  the  body 
is  grey,  streaked  with  dusky-brown  and  yellowish-white,  on 
the  rump,  with  greyish-brown  and  reddish-white ; these  spots 
are  more  numerous  on  the  breast ; the  wing  coverts  are  a 
dusky-chestnut.  The  females  are  distinguished  in  the  nest  by 
the  back  being  more  grey  than  brown,  and  by  the  number  of 
streaks  on  the  breast,  which  resemble  that  of  the  lark ; bird 
fanciers  leave  these  in  the  nest  and  take  only  the  males. 

Linnets  breed  twice  a-year,  and  lay  each  time  from  four  to 
six  bluish-white  eggs,  covered  all  over  with  flesh-colored 
and  reddish-brown  spots  and  stripes.  The  male  birds  may 
be  recognised  in  the  earlier  stage  of  their  growth  by  the 
white  ring  round  the  neck,  and  the  white  on  the  tail  and 
wings. 


THE  LINNET. 


49 


HYBRIDITY. 


It  is  common  for  a male  linnet  to  pair  with  a hen  Canary, 
and  hybrids  produced  by  this  means  are  easily  reared,  and 
can  scarcely  be  distinguished  from  other  grey  Canaries,  either 
from  their  appearance  or  song. 


In  confinement,  linnets  require  nothing  but  summer  cabbage 
seed,*  which  does  not  require  to  be  soaked,  as  they  are  na- 
turally seed-eating  birds,  having  a powerful  crop  and  stomach, 
and  can  therefore  better  digest  it.  Hemp  seed,  they  must  not 
have  at  all.  They  must  not  be  too  well  fed  in  the  cage ; for, 
taking  little  exercise,  they  would  soon  die  from  over-feeding. 

* Winter  cabbage  seed,  which  does  not  injure  them  at  liberty,  soon  kills  them  in 
onfinement. 


LINNET  CAGE. 


FOOD  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


3 


50 


THE  LINNET. 


They  like  salt,  and,  contrary  to  the  general  rule,  it  is  therefore 
well  occasionally  to  intermix  some  with  their  food ; and  this  is  an 
excellent  preventive  against  various  maladies.  When  linnets 
are  allowed  to  run  about,  they  readily  feed  with  other  birds  on 
the  universal  paste.  Some  green  food  must  occasionally  be 
given  them,  as  also  sand  and  water,  as  they  like  to  bathe  and 
dust  themselves. 

It  is  best  to  keep  them  in  square  cages,  as  they  are  less 
subject  to  giddiness  in  these  than  in  round  ones,  and  sing 
better.  They  are  not  often  allowed  to  range  the  room,  as 
they  are  very  indolent,  remaining  immovable  in  the  same 
place,  and  running  the  risk  of  being  trodden  upon ; but  if  a 
small  tree  or  a roost  be  placed  in  a corner,  they  may  be 
let  out  of  the  cage  with  safety,  as  they  will  remain  perched 
there,  only  leaving  it  to  eat  or  drink,  and  will  sing  all  day 
long. 

DISEASES. 

The  most  common  disorders  of  this  species  are  consti- 
pation, atrophy,  and  epilepsy;  but  linnets  in  confinement 
will  generally  live  from  twelve  to  sixteen  years. 


THE  AMERICAN  GOLDFINCH. 


Synonymes. 


Fringilla  tristis , 
Chardonneret  jaune, 
Amerikanischer  Distelfink, 
Jilguero  americano, 
Pintacilgo  americano, 
Calderino  americano, 
Yellow  Bird,  American 
Goldfinch, 


Of  Ornithologists. 
Of  the  French. 

Of  the  Germans. 

Of  the  Spaniards. 

Cf  the  Portuguese. 
Of  the  Italians. 

( Of  the  British  and 
/ Anglo-Americans. 


HIS  very  beautiful  and  familiar  messenger  of  spring  is 
known  throughout  this  continent  from  the  49th  parallel 
of  north  latitude  to  the  savannas  of  Guiana  and  Suri- 
nam. As  summer  approaches,  the  males  cast  off  their  olive- 
colored  winter  suits,  and  appear  in  their  temporary  golden 
livery,  with  the  front  of  the  head,  wings,  and  tail  of  a deep 
black,  when  they  may  be  heard  in  concert,  tuning  their  lively 
notes,  several  sitting  on  the  same  tree  enjoying  the  exhilerating 
scene,  basking  and  pluming  themselves,  and  vying  with  each 
other  in  pouring  forth  their  varied,  soft,  and  cheerful  song. 
When  they  sing  all  together,  as  they  now  do,  it  has  a pleasing 
effect;  their  favorite  note  resembles  the  word  bdbee,  or  may  be, 
the  last  syllable  protracted  and  much  higher  than  the  first. 
They  have  also  a note,  which  they  utter  when  flying  through 
the  air,  that  sounds  somewhat  like  the  word  physician , pro- 
nounced very  rapidly.  But  the  most  beautiful  part  of  their 
A song,  is,  when  they  raise  and  sink  their  voices  in  such  a delight-  A 
111? <09 


p>~ 
* 52 


THE  AMERTC4N  GOLDFINCH. 


<« 


ful  cadence,  that  their  music,  at  times,  seems  “ to  float  on  the 
distant  breeze,  scarcely  louder  than  the  hum  of  bees it  then 
breaks  out,  as  it  were,  into  a crescendo , which  rends  the  air  like 
the  loud  song  of  the  Canary. 

In  confinement,  the  yellow  bird  soon  becomes  familiar  and 
reconciled,  its  song  being  nearly  as  animated  and  sonorous 
as  its  transatlantic  congener.  According  to  Mr.  Audubon,  it  is 
extremely  hardy,  often  remaining  the  whole  winter  in  the 
Middle  States,  and  when  deprived  of  liberty,  will  live  to  a great 
age  in  a room  or  cage.  “ I have  known  two  instances,”  says 
he,  “ in  which  a bird  of  this  species  had  been  confined  for 
upwards  of  ten  years.  They  were  procured  in  the  market  of 
New  York,  when  in  mature  plumage,  and  had  been  caught  in 
trap  cages.  One  of  them  having  undergone  the  severe  train- 
ing, more  frequently  inflicted  in  Europe  than  America,  and 
known  in  France  by  the  name  of  galerien , would  draw  water 
for  its  drink  from  a glass,  it  having  a little  chain  attached  to  a 
narrow  belt  of  soft  leather  fastened  round  its  body,  and  another 
equally  light  chain  fastened  to  a little  bucket,  kept  by  its 
weight  in  the  water,  until  the  little  fellow  raised  it  up  with  its 
bill,  placed  a foot  upon  it,  and  pulled  again  at  the  chain  until 
it  reached  the  desired  fluid  and  drank,  when,  on  letting  go,  the 
bucket  immediately  fell  into  the  glass  below.  In  the  same 
manner,  it  was  obliged  to  draw  towards  its  bill  a little  charriot 
filled  with  seeds;  and  in  this  distressing,  occupation  was 
doomed  to  toil  through  a life  of  solitary  grief,  separated  from 
its  companions,  wantoning  on  the  wild  flowers,  and  procuring 
their  food  in  the  manner  in  which  nature  had  taught  them.” 

The  food  of  the  American  goldfinch  consists  chiefly  of  the 
seeds  of  the  various  species  of  thistles,  lettuce,  hemp,  and  sun- 
flower; and  in  winter,  when  its  more  agreeable  food  is  not 
found  in  sufficient  abundance,  it  resorts  to  the  fruit  and  seeds 
of  the  elder.  It  also  collects  the  tender  buds  of  trees,  as  well 
as  the  confervas  of  brooks  and  springs,  as  a variety  of  its 
usual  fare. 

These  birds  occasionally  do  some  damage  to  gardens  by 
fheir  indis:riminate  destruction  of  lettuce  and  flower  seed? 


THE  AMERICAN  GOLDFINCH. 


53 


and  they  are  therefore  often  disliked  by  gardeners ; but  their 
usefulness,  in  other  respects,  far  more  than  counterbalances 
the  trifling  injuries  they  produce. 

After  being  caught  in  trap  cages,  they  feed  as  if  quite  con- 
tented ; but,  should  it  happen  to  be  in  the  spring  that  they  lose 
their  liberty,  and  have  thus  been  deprived  of  the  pleasures 
anticipated  from  the  previous  union  of  a mate,  they  linger  for 
a few  days,  pine  away,  and  die.  They  are  very  fond  of 
washing  and  bathing  themselves,  in  clear  shallow  water,  when 
the  weather  is  mild,  after  which,  they  are  engaged  in  picking 
up  particles  of  sand  and  gravel,  from  which  the  fancier  may 
take  a useful  hint. 

It  is  stated  that  it  is  more  difficult  to  procure  a mule,  or 
hybrid,  between  this  species  and  the  Canary,  than  between 
the  latter  and  the  European  goldfinch,  although  the  cross  has 
often  been  made  with  success. 


THE  AMERICAN  ROBIN, 


Bynonymes. 


Turdus  migratorius , 

Tourd  emigrant,  Griere  du  \ 
Canada,  S 

Auswanderer  Drossel, 

Tordo  migratorio, 

Tordo  emigrante, 

Tordo  migrante, 

American  Robin,  Robin  Red-  } 
breast,  Migrating  Thrush,  > 
Red-breasted  Thrush,  ) 


Of  Ornithologists, 
Of  the  French, 

Of  the  Germans, 

Of  the  Spaniards. 
Of  the  Portuguese. 
Of  the  Italians. 

( Of  the  British  and 
< Anglo-Americans, 


HE  American  robin  is  a saucy  familiar  bird,  fond  of  man’s 
neighborhood,  throughout  North  America,  from  the  56th 
parallel  of  north  latitude  to  the  table  lands  of  Mexico, 
and  is  more  frequently  to  be  seen  in  our  orchards  and  fields 
than  in  the  denser  woods.  The  confidence  he  reposes  in  us 
by  taking  up  his  abode  in  our  vicinage;  the  frankness  and 
innocence  of  his  manners;  the  simplicity  of  his  thrilling  lays, 
delivered  in  all  the  artless  energy  of  true  love ; and  the  pecu- 
liar pleasure  with  which  we  listen  to  his  vocal  powers,  ever 
inspires  us  with  attachment  and  universal  respect.  Besides, 
the  endearing  name  he  sometimes  bears,  recalls  to  mind 


THE  AMERICAN  ROBIN. 


55 


the  well-known  legend,  so  oft  repeated  in  our  juvenile  days, 
of  the  “ favorite  Robin  Redbreast,”  said  to  have  covered 
with  a leafy  shroud  the  lost  and  wandering  “ babes  in 
the  wood.”  He  is  commonly  called  “ robin,”  though  there 
is  but  little  resemblance  between  him  and  his  European 
congener,  except  in  the  single  circumstance  of  his  having 
a red  breast. 


EUROPEAN  ROBIN. 


The  American  robin,  when  reared  in  a cage,  is  of  a lively 
and  gentle  disposition,  docile,  and  seemingly  content,  and  the 
melody  and  simplicity  of  his  song,  of  which  he  is  very  lavish 
in  confinement,  renders  him  a special  favorite.  He  sings  well, 
readily  learns  to  imitate  lively  parts  of  airs,  and  on  the 
authority  of  Mr.  Nuttall,  some  have  been  taught  to  pipe  forth 
psalms  even  to  so  solemn  a measure  as  that  of  “ Old  Hundred !” 
He  also  acquires  a considerable  capacity  for  mimickry, 
imitating  the  notes  of  many  of  the  birds  around  him,  as 
those  of  the  pe-wee,  blue  bird,  and  whip-poor-will.  At  times, 
he  becomes  very  tame,  and  will  go  in  and  out  of  the  house 
with  domestic  confidence,  appear  uneasy  when  left  alone,  and 
will  follow  his  owner,  come  to  her  call,  peck  at  her  finger,  or 
kiss  her  mouth,  with  seeming  pleasure.  His  principal  song, 
both  in  confinement  and  at  large,  commences  in  the  morning 
before  sunrise,  and  at  which  time  it  is  very  loud,  emphatic, 
and  full. 

The  rufous  color  of  the  breast  becomes  deeper  in  those 
birds  brought  up  in  confinement,  and  the  females  are  somewhat 
paler  than  the  males.  The  young,  during  the  first  season,  are 
spotted  on  the  breast  with  dusk  and  white. 


56 


THE  AMERICAN  ROBIN. 


FOOD  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


During  the  winter,  according  to  Mr.  Audubon,  the  robin 
feeds  on  the  berries  and  fruits  of  our  woods,  gardens,  and 
fields,  and  even  of  the  ornamental  trees  of  our  cities  and  larger 
towns.  The  holly,  sweet  gum,  gallberry,  and  the  poke  are 
those  it  first  attacks;  but  as  these  fail,  it  feeds  on  the 
mountain  ash,  Carolinian  cherry,  and  the  azedarach.  On  the 
latter,  in  their  annual  migrations  to  Florida  and  the  Southern 
States,  these  birds  often  glut  themselves  to  such  an  inordinate 
degree,  that  they  are  sometimes  found  stupified  by  its  narcotic 
power.  In  spring  and  summer,  they  devour  worms  and 
snails.  They  also  pick  up  from  the  fields  the  seeds  of 
maize. 

In  confinement,  this  bird  feeds  on  bread  soaked  either  in 
water  or  milk,  and  on  most  kinds  of  our  native  and  edible 
fruits.  Being  equally  fond  of  insects  as  when  at  liberty,  he 
seizes  on  all  that  enter  his  cage,  or  come  within  his  reach. 

The  robin  is  comparatively  a hardy  and  long-lived  bird, 
and  instances  are  reported  of  its  having  been  kept  for  nearly 
twenty  years.  It  suffers  much  in  moulting,  even  in  a wild 
state,  and  when  in  captivity,  it  loses  nearly  all  its  feathers  at 
once.  In  general,  when  due  care  is  observed  to  cleanliness,  it 
is  freer  from  parasitic  vermin  than  most  other  species. 


vs*- 


THE  SONG  THRUSH. 


Synonymes. 


Turdus  musicus , 
Grive,  Tourd, 
Singdrossel, 

Tordo  cantador, 
Tordo, 

Song  Thrush, 


Of  Ornithologists. 
Of  the  French. 

Of  the  Germans. 
t Of  the  Spaniards 
\ and  Portuguese. 

Of  the  Italians. 

< Of  the  British  and 
l Anglo-Americans. 


HE  song  thrush  is  one  of  the  few  birds  whcse  clear 
and  beautiful  notes  animates  and  makes  pleasing  the 
European  woods.  From  the  summits  of  the  highest 
trees,  it  announces,  by  its  varying  song,  resembling  that  of  the 
nightingale,  the  approach  of  spring,  and  sings  throughout  the 
whole  summer,  especially  in  the  morning  dawn  and  evening 
twilight.  For  the  sake  of  this  song,  it  is  kept  by  fanciers  in  a 
cage,  whence  evening  and  morning,  even  as  early  as  February, 
it  will  delight  a whole  street  by  its  loud  and  pleasing  song, 
when  hung  outside  of  the  window,  or  inside,  so  that  the  window 
be  a little  open.  In  Thuringia,  it  is  reputed  to  articulate 
words.  Its  strophe  was  heard  formerly  more  frequently 
than  it  is  now.  Only  old  and  excellent  birds  still  sing  it. 
This  thrush  will  live  from  six  to  eight  years,  if  its  food  be 
varied. 

3* 


58 


THE  SONG  THRUSH. 


DESCRIPTION. 


This  species  is  eight  inches  and  a half  long,  of  which  the 
tail  occupies  three  inches  and  a half ; the  beak  is  nine  lines 
long,  horny-brown  beneath,  and  from  the  middle  to  the  base, 
yellow;  the  irides  nut-brown;  the  feet  pale  lead-color,  one 
inch  high;  the  whole  of  the  upper  part  of  the  body  olive- 
brown  ; the  throat  whitish-yellow,  with  a black  stripe  extend- 
ing down  its  sides;  the  sides  of  the  neck  and  breast,  pale 
reddish-yellow,  with  numerous  dark-brown,  heart-shaped 
spots;  the  abdomen  white,  with  oval  dark-brown  spots;  the 
inside  coverts  bright  orange-yellow ; the  pinion  feathers  grey- 
brown  ; the  tail  feathers  the  same. 


In  the  female,  the  two  black  lines  of  the  throat  consist  of 
small  stripes,  and  the  breast  is  pale  yellowish-white. 


The  food  of  the  song  thrush,  in  a state  of  liberty,  consists 
generally  of  earth  worms,  but  in  autumn  they  eat  berries  of  all 
kinds.  Earth  worms  constitute  their  chief  sustenance,  with 
which  they  also  feed  their  young.  They  are  easily  fed  in  con- 
finement, and  the  universal  paste  is  an  agreeable  delicacy  to 
them.  Barley  meal,  or  merely  wheat  bran,  wetted  with  water 
is  sufficient  to  nourish  them.  But  to  get  them  into  a state  fit 
k for  song,  they  must  have  a more  generous  diet,  such  as  rod 

®»- 


THE  SONG  THRUSH. 


FOOD  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


THE  SONG  THRUSH. 


59  f 


bread,  meat,  and  many  other  things  which  come  to  table,  for 
they  are  not  dainty.  They  are  fond  of  bathing. 

In  confinement,  this  bird  is  usually  placed  within  a trellis, 
or  it  is  put  into  a large  cage  of  any  shape,  but  at  least  three 
feet  and  a half  long,  and  nearly  as  high;  for,  being  a large  and 
wild  bird,  and  in  constant  motion,  it  easily  injures  its  plumage. 
It  is  best  that  such  large  birds  should  have  a separate  room 
appropriated  to  them,  as  their  copious  excrements  smell 
offensively. 


The  most  usual  maladies  to  which  this  bird  is  subject  are  a 
stoppage  of  the  feather  glands,  constipation,  and  atrophy. 


DISEASES. 


i 


THE  MOCKING  BIRD. 


Synonymes. 


glotte,  Grand  Moqueur 
VielzUngler  Vogel, 

Tordo  poligloto, 

Tordo  polyglotto, 

Tordo  poliglotto, 


Turdus  polyglottus , 
Polyglotte,  Tourd  poly- 

fflntto  OvariH  lUnrmoni* 


Of  Ornithologists. 
Of  the  French. 


Of  the  Germans. 
Of  the  Spaniards. 


Mocking  Bird, 


Of  the  Portuguese. 
Of  the  Italians. 

{ Of  the  British  and 
$ Anglo-Americans. 


fHIS  “ unrivalled  Orpheus  of  the  forest  and  natural 
wonder  of  America,”  inhabits  the  whole  continent  from 
the  state  of  Massachusetts  along  the  Atlantic,  including 
several  of  the  West-India  Islands,  as  far  south  as  Brazil ; and 
from  the  table  lands  of  Mexico,  along  the  very  base  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  to  Oregon,  and  the  western  sources  of  the 
river  Platte.  In  short,  he  appears  to  dwell  permanently  in  the 
milder  regions  of  the  New  World,  in  either  hemisphere;  and 
those  bred  north  of  the  Delaware,  on  this  side  of  the  equator, 
are  all  that  ever  migrate,  in  autumn,  to  more  congenial 


The  mocking  bird,  though  destitute  of  brilliant  plumage,  is 
delicate  and  symmetrical  in  his  proportions  and  beautiful 
in  his  form.  His  motions  are  easy,  rapid,  and  graceful,  per- 
petually animated  with  a playful  caprice,  and  a look  that 
appears  full  of  shrewdness  and  intelligence.  He  listens  with 
~lent  attention  to  each  passing  sound,  treasures  up  lessonr 


climes. 


THE  MOCKING  BIRD. 


61  st 


gp* 

from  anything  vocal,  and  is  capable  of  imitating  with  exact- 
ness, both  in  measure  and  accent,  the  notes  of  all  the  feathered 
race.  And,  however  wild  and  discordant  the  tones  and  calls 
may  be,  he  contrives  with  an  Orphean  talent,  peculiarly  his 
own,  to  infuse  into  them  that  sweetness  of  expression,  and 
harmonious  modulation  which  characterises  this  inimitable 
and  wonderful  composer.  With  the  dawn  of  morning,  while 
yet  the  sun  lingers  below  the  blushing  horizon,  our  sublime 
songster,  in  his  native  wilds,  mounted  on  the  topmost  branch 
of  a tall  tree  or  bush,  pours  out  his  admirable  song,  which, 
amidst  the  multitude  of  notes  from  all  the  warbling  host,  still 
rises  pre-eminent,  so  that  his  solo  is  heard  alone,  and  all  the 
rest  of  the  musical  choir  appear  employed  as  mere  accom- 
paniments to  this  grand  actor  in  the  sublime  opera  of  nature. 
Nor  is  his  talent  confined  to  imitation;  his  native  notes  are 
also  bold,  full,  and  perpetually  varied,  consisting  of  short  ex- 
pressions of  a few  variable  syllables,  interspersed  with  imita- 
tions, and  uttered  with  great  emphasis  and  volubility,  sometimes 
for  half  an  hour  at  a time,  with  undiminished  ardor.  These 
native  strains  bear  a considerable  resemblance  to  those  of  the 
brown  thrush,  with  which  he  is  so  nearly  related  in  form, 
habits,  and  manners;  but  like  him,  rude  from  cultivated  genius, 
his  notes  are  distinguished  by  ihe  rapidity  of  their  delivery,  their 
variety,  sweetness,  and  energy.  As  if  conscious  of  his  un- 
rivalled powers  of  song,  and  animated  by  the  harmony  of  his 
own  voice,  his  music  is,  as  it  were,  accompanied  by  chromatic 
dancing  and  expressive  gestures;  he  spreads  and  closes  his 
light,  fanning  wings,  expands  his  silvered  tail,  and,  with 
buoyant  gaiety  and  enthusiastic  ecstacy,  sweeps  around,  and 
mounts  and  descends  into  the  air  from  his  lofty  spray,  as  his 
song  swells  to  loudness,  or,  in  sinking  whispers,  dies  away. 
While  thus  engaged,  so  varied  is  his  talent,  that  it  might  be 
supposed  a trial  of  skill  from  all  the  assembled  songsters  of 
the  air ; and  so  perfect  are  his  imitations,  that  even  the  sports- 
man is  at  times  deceived,  and  sent  in  quest  of  birds  that  have 
no  existence  around.  The  feathered  tribes  themselves  are 
^ ^ decoyed  by  the  fancied  call  of  their  mates ; or  dive  with  fear  ^ ^ 
8fl» — 483 


THE  MOCKING-  BIRD. 


into  the  close  thicket,  at  the  well-feigned  scream  of  the 
hawk. 

Soon  reconciled  to  the  usurping  fancy  of  man,  the  mocking 
bird  often  becomes  familiar  with  his  master;  playfully  attacks 
him  through  the  bars  of  his  cage,  or  at  large  in  a room;  rest- 
less and  capricious,  he  seems  to  try  every  expedient  of  a lively 
imagination,  that  may  conduce  to  his  amusement.  Nothing 
escapes  his  discerning  and  intelligent  eye  nor  faithful  ear.  He 
whistles,  perhaps,  for  the  dog,  who,  deceived,  runs  to  meet  his 
master;  the  cries  of  the  chicken  in  distress  bring  out  the 
clucking  mother  to  the  protection  of  her  brood.  The  barking 
of  the  dog,  the  piteous  wailing  of  the  puppy,  the  mewing  of  the 
cat,  the  action  of  a saw,  or  the  creaking  of  a wheelbarrow 
quickly  follow  with  exactness.  He  repeats  a tune  of  consider- 
able length  ; imitates  the  warbling  of  the  Canary,  the  lisping  of 
the  indigo  bird,  and  the  mellow  whistle  of  the  cardinal,  in  a 
manner  so  superior  to  the  originals,  that,  mortified  and 
astonished,  they  withdraw  from  his  presence,  or  listen  in 
silence,  as  he  continues  in  triumph. 

In  the  cage,  also,  nearly  as  in  the  woods,  he  is  full  of  life  and 
action,  while  engaged  in  song;  throwing  himself  round  with 
inspiring  animation,  and,  as  it  were,  moving  in  time  to  the 
melody  of  his  own  accents.  Even  the  hours  of  night,  which 
consign  nearly  all  other  birds  to  silence  and  rest,  like  the 
nightingale,  he  oft  employs  in  song,  serenading  the  houseless 
hunter  and  silent  cottager  to  repose,  as  the  rising  moon 
illumines  the  darkness  of  the  shadowy  scene.  His  capricious 
fondness  for  contrast  and  perpetual  variety  appears  to  dete- 
riorate his  powers.  His  lofty  imitations  of  the  musical  brown 
thrush  are  perhaps  interrupted  by  the  crowing  of  the  cock,  or 
the  barking  of  the  dog ; the  plaintive  warblings  of  the  blue 
bird  are  then  blended  with  the  wild  scream  and  chatter  of  the 
swallow,  or  the  cackling  of  the  hen ; amid  the  simple  lay  of 
the  native  robin,  we  are  surprised  with  the  vociferations  of  the 
whip-poor-will ; while  the  notes  of  the  garrulous  jay,  kildeer, 
woodpecker,  Baltimore  wren,  and  many  others  succeed,  with 
such  an  appearance  of  reality,  that  we  imagine  ourselves  ^ 


THE  MOCKING  BIRD. 


63 


in  the  presence  of  the  originals,  and  can  scarcely  realise  the 
fact,  that  the  whole  of  this  singular  concert  is  the  effort  of  a 
single  bird.  Indeed,  it  is  impossible  to  listen  to  these  Orphean 
strains,  when  delivered  by  a superior  songster  in  his  native 
woods,  without  being  deeply  affected,  and  almost  rivetted  to 
the  spot,  by  the  complicated  feelings  of  wonder  and  delight,  in 
which,  from  the  graceful  and  sympathetic  action,  as  well  as 
enchanting  voice  of  the  performer,  the  eye  is  no  less  gratified, 
than  the  ear.* 


DISTINCTION  BETWEEN  THE  MALE  AND  FEMALE. 

The  young  male  bird,  which  must  be  selected  as  a singer, 
may  be  distinguished  by  the  breadth  and  purity  of  the  white 
on  the  wings.  This  white  spot,  in  a full-grown  male,  spreads 
over  the  whole  nine  primaries,  down  to,  and  considerably 
below,  their  coverts,  which  are  also  white,  sometimes  slightly 
tipped  with  brown.  The  white  of  the  primaries,  also,  extends  to 
the  same  distance  on  both  vanes  of  the  feathers.  In  the  female, 
the  white  is  less  clear,  spreads  only  over  seven  or  eight  of  the 
primaries,  does  not  descend  so  far,  and  extends  considerably 
further  down  on  the  broad  than  on  the  narrow  side  of  the 
feathers.  The  black  is  also  more  inclined  to  brown. 


FOOD  AND  MANAGEMENT. 

In  a state  of  freedom,  the  principal  food  of  the  mocking 
bird  consists  of  insects,  grasshoppers,  and  worms.  Dew- 
berries from  the  fields,  and  many  kinds  of  our  cultivated 
fruits,  together  with  insects,  supply  the  young  as  well  as  the 
parents  with  food.  In  winter,  they  chiefly  subsist  on  berries, 
particularly  those  of  the  Virginia  juniper,  (red  cedar,)  wax 
myrtle,  holly,  smilax,  sumach,  sour  gum,  and  a variety  of 
others. 


* Nuttall. 


64 


THE  MOCKING  BIRD. 


Successful  attempts  have  been  made  to  breed  these  birds 
in  confinement  by  allowing  them  retirement  and  a sufficiency 
of  room.  Those  which  have  been  taken  in  trap  cages  are 
accounted  the  best  singers,  as  they  come  from  the  school  of 
nature,  and  are  taught  their  own  wild  wood  notes.  The  young 
are  easily  reared  by  hand  from  the  nest,  from  which  they 
ought  to  be  removed  at  eight  or  ten  days  old.  Their  food  is 
thickened  meal  and  water,  or  meal  and  milk,  mixed  occasion- 
ally with  tender  fresh  meat,  minced  fine.  Animal  food,  almost 
alone,  finely  divided  and  soaked  in  milk,  is  at  first  the  only 
nutriment  suited  for  raising  these  tender  nurslings.  Young 
and  old  require  berries  of  various  kinds,  from  time  to  time, 
such  as  cherries,  strawberries,  whortleberries,  &c.,  and,  in 
short,  any  kind  of  wild  fruits  of  which  they  are  fond,  if  not 
given  too  freely,  are  useful.  A few  grasshoppers,  beetles,  or 
any  insects  conveniently  to  be  had,  as  well  as  gravel,  are  also 
necessary ; and  spiders  will  often  revive  them  when  drooping 
or  sick.  But,  notwithstanding  all  the  care  and  management 
bestowed  upon  the  improvement  of  this  bird,  it  is  painful  to 
reflect  that  his  extraordinary  powers  of  nature,  exercised  with 
so  much  generous  freedom  in  a state  of  confinement,  are  not 
calculated  for  long  endurance ; for,  after  this  most  wonderful 
and  interesting  prisoner  has  survived  six  or  seven  years, 
blindness  often  terminates  his  gay  career — thus  shut  out  from 
the  cheering  light  of  heaven,  the  solace  of  his  lonely,  though 
active  existence,  he  now,  after  a time,  droops  in  silent  sadness 
and  dies.  At  times,  this  bird  is  so  infested  with  a minute 
species  of  louse  as  to  be  destroyed  by  it. 

Good  singing  birds  of  this  species  generally  command  from 
$5  to  $15  each,  though  individuals  of  extraordinary  and 
peculiar  powers  have  been  sold  as  high  as  $50,  or  $100,  each, 
ane  even  $300  have  been  refused  ! 


THE  BROWN  THRUSH. 


Synonymea. 


Turdus  rufus, 

Tourd  roux, 

Rother  Drossel, 

Tordo  rojo, 

Tordo  ruco, 

Tordo  rosso, 

Brown  Thmsh,  Ferruginous  ) 
Thrush,  Thrasher,  { 

French  Mockirg  Bird, 

Red  Mayy, 


Of  Ornithologists, 

Of  the  French. 

Of  the  Germans. 

Of  the  Spaniards. 

Of  the  Portuguese. 

Of  the  Italians. 

( Of  the  British  and 
l Anglo-Americans. 

Of  the  Southern  States. 
{ Of  Some  Parts  of  New 
( England. 


HIS  large,  cheerful,  and  familiar  songster,  inferior  to  none 
in  musical  talent,  if  we  except  the  mocking  bird,  is  found 
in  almost  every  part  of  the  United  States  from  Canada 
to  the  shores  of  the  Mexican  Gulf,  breeding,  according  to  Mr. 
Nuttall,  in  all  the  intermediate  space,  though  more  abundantly 
towards  the  north.  His  voice  somewhat  resembles  that  of  the 
European  thrush,  but  is  far  more  varied  and  powerful,  rising 
pre-eminent  amidst  the  forest  choir.  He  takes  no  delight  in 
mimicking  the  song  of  other  birds,  and  therefore  has  no  claim 
to  the  title  of  “ mocking  bird,”  as  he  is  usually  called  at  the 
south. 

On  the  first  appearance  of  this  bird  in  the  spring,  he  faulters 
in  his  song,  like  the  nightingale,  but  when  his  mate  commences 
the  cares  and  labors  incident  to  breeding  and  rearing  her 
i young,  his  varied  and  melodious  notes  are  steadily  poured  out 

— «§' 


66 


THE  BROWN  THRUSH. 


in  all  their  vigor  and  strength.  In  the  month  of  May,  while 
the  blooming  orchards  perfume  the  air  and  decorate  the 
landscape,  his  enchanting  voice,  in  his  affectionate  lay,  seems 
to  give  grateful  utterance  for  the  bounty  and  teeming  pro- 
fusion of  nature,  and  falls  in  pleasing  unison  with  the  har- 
mony and  beauty  of  the  season.  And  even  the  young  birds, 
in  a state  of  solitary  domesticity,  without  the  aid  of  their 
parent’s  voice,  already  whisper  forth  in  harmonious  reverie 
the  pathetic  and  sweet  warble  instinctive  to  the  species. 

Deprived  of  other  society,  in  a state  of  captivity,  the  brown 
•thrush  is  exceedingly  familiar,  cheerful,  and  capriciously 
playful.  He  courts  the  attention  of  his  keeper,  follows  his 
steps,  complains  when  neglected,  flies  to  him  when  permitted 
to  be  at  large,  and  gratefully  sings  and  reposes  when  perched 
on  his  hand.  In  short,  in  all  his  actions,  he  appears  capable  of 
real  and  affectionate  attachment;  but,  like  many  other  animals, 
he  is  jealous  of  every  rival,  particularly  any  other  bird,  which 
he  drives  from  his  presence  with  unceasing  hatred. 


According  to  Audubon,  the  natural  food  of  this  species  con- 
sists of  insects,  worms,  berries,  and  fruits  of  all  sorts,  being 
particularly  fond  of  ripe  pears  and  figs.  In  winter,  they 
resort  to  the  berries  of  the  sumach,  holly,  dogwood,  and  shriv- 
elled wild  grapes. 

In  a state  of  confinement,  these  birds  may  be  reared  in  the 
same  manner,  and  on  the  same  kind  of  food  as  their  congener, 
the  mocking  bird.  In  the  autumn,  of  the  first  season,  the 
young  begin  their  musical  studies,  “ repeating  passages  with 
as  much  zeal  as  ever  did  Paganini.”  By  the  following  spring, 
their  lessons  are  complete  and  the  full  powers  of-  their  song 
developed. 

Like  the  American  robin,  the  brown  thrush  suffers  much  in 
moulting,  and  often  nearly  loses  all  his  feathers  at  once. 


FOOD  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


THE  CAT  BIRD. 


Synonymes . 


Turdus  felivox , 
Gobe-mouche  brun  de  Vir- 
giiiie,  Moucherolle  de  Vir- 
ginie,  Tourd  miaulant, 
Miauendrossel, 

Tordo  de  maullido, 

Tordo  miante, 

Tordo  miagolare, 

Cat  Bird, 


Of  Ornithologists. 

Of  the  French. 

Of  the  Germans. 

Of  tiie  Spaniards. 
Of  the  Portuguese. 
Of  the  Italians. 

$ Of  the  British  and 
j Anglo-Americans. 


NE  of  the  most  remarkable  propensities  of  this  quaint 
and  familiar  songster,  which  inhabits  almost  every 
part  of  North  America  from  Mexico  to  Canada,  and 
even  Kamtschatka,  is  the  unpleasant,  loud,  grating,  and 
grimalkin-like  mew,  CPay>)  that  it  often  utters,  on  being 
offended  or  approached ; and  thus  coupled  with  the  name  of  a 
44  wizzard  animal,”  so  much  disliked  by  many,  this  delightful 
vocalist,  which  seeks  out  the  very  society  of  man,  and 
reposes  an  unmerited  confidence  in  his  protection,  is  generally 
treated  with  undeserved  obloquy  and  contempt. 

44  The  cat  bird,”  says  Nuttall,  44  often  tunes  his  cheerful  song 
before  the  break  of  day,  hopping  from  bush  to  bush,  with  great 
agility,  after  his  insect  prey,  while  yet  scarcely  distinguish- 
able amidst  the  dusky  shadows  of  the  dawn.  The  notes  of 
different  individuals  vary  considerably,  so  that  sometimes  his 
b song,  in  sweetness  and  compass,  is  scarcely  at  all  inferior  to 


THE  CAT  BIRD. 


that  of  the  ferruginous  thrush.  A quaintness,  however,  pre- 
vails in  all  his  efforts,  and  his  song  is  frequently  made  up  of 
short  and  blended  imitations  of  other  birds,  given  however, 
with  great  emphasis,  melody,  and  variety  of  tone;  and,  like 
the  nightingale,  invading  the  hours  of  repose,  in  the  late 
twilight  of  a summer’s  evening,  when  scarce  another  note  is 
heard  but  the  hum  of  the  drowsy  beetle,  his  music  attains  its 
full  effect,  and  often  rises  and  falls  with  all  the  swell  and 
studied  cadence  of  finished  harmony.  During  the  heat  of 
the  day,  or  late  in  the  morning,  the  variety  of  his  song 
declines,  or  he  pursues  his  employment  in  silence  and 
retirement.” 

About  the  dawn  of  day,  if  at  large,  the  cat  bird  flirts  about  with 
affected  wildness,  repeatedly  jerks  his  wings  and  tail,  with  a 
noise  somewhat  resembling  a whip,  stretching  forth  his  head, 
opens  his  mouth,  and  mews.  Sometimes  this  curious  cry  is  so 
guttural  as  to  be  uttered  without  opening  his  bill.  He  often 
also  gives  a squeal  as  he  flies  from  one  place  to  another. 

According  to  Latham,  this  bird  is  also  capable  of  imitating 
the  variable  airs  of  instrumental  music,  and  will  sometimes 
mimick  the  cry  of  chickens  so  as  to  deceive  and  distress  the 
parent  hen.  When  reared  from  the  nest,  he  is  easily  domes- 
ticated, becomes  a very  amusing  companion,  and  seems 
attached  to  his  cage.  Although  a pleasant  songster,  he  is 
seldom  kept  in  confinement,  and  I believe  all  attempts  at 
breeding  it,  have  failed. 


The  natural  food  of  this  species  is  similar  to  that  of  the 
ferruginous  thrush,  consisting  principally  of  insects  and 
worms,  particularly  beetles  and  wasps,  and  the  various  kinds 
of  garden  fruits. 

In  confinement,  the  food  of  these  birds  may  be  almost 
everything  that  is  vegetable,  except  unbruised  seeds,  such  as 
bread,  fine  pastry,  containing  little  or  no  spices,  cakes, 


FOOD  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


THE  CAT  BIRD. 


69 


scalded  Indian  meal,  juicy  fruits,  and  now  and  then  some 
bread  boiled  in  milk,  a few  insects,  or  minced  flesh.  The 
young,  when  taken  from  the  nest,  may  be  fed  on  ripe  cherries, 
and  other  kinds  of  juicy  fruits. 

“ Like  all  other  thrushes,”  says  Mr.  Audubon,  “ this  is  very 
fond  of  bathing  and  rolling  itself  in  the  dust  or  sand  of  the 
roads  and  fields.  Several  are  frequently  seen  together  in  the 
borders  of  small  ponds  or  clear  rivulets,  immersed  up  to  their 
body,  splashing  the  water  about  them  until  completely  wetted ; 
then  ascending  to  the  top  of  the  nearest  bushes,  they  plume 
themselves  with  apparent  care,  notwithstanding  which,  they 
are  at  times  so  infested  with  a minute  species  of  louse  as  to  be 
destroyed  by  it.” 


THE  EUROPEAN  BLACKBIRD. 


Synonymes. 


Turdus  meruZay 
Merle, 

Schwarzdrossel, 

Merlo, 

Melro, 

Blackbird, 

English  Blackbird, 


Of  Ornithologists, 

Of  the  French, 

Of  the  Germans* 

« Of  the  Spaniards 
\ an d Italians, 

Of  the  Portuguese, 

Of  the  British. 

Of  the  Anglo-Americans. 


EING  a permanent  resident  throughout  the  whole  of 
the  Old  World,  even  as  far  north  as  Sweden,  the 
European  Blackbird  is  sufficiently  hardy  by  nature 
to  withstand  the  climate  of  nearly,  if  not  all  parts  of  the 
United  States.  Of  all  the  thrushes,  with  perhaps  the  exception 
of  the  American  robin,  he  is  the  most  capable  of  instruction. 
His  song  is  rich  in  melody,  and  contains  some  deep  notes  like 
those  of  the  nightingale,  varied,  indeed,  with  some  which  are 
disagreeably  harsh.  At  large,  he  sings  only  from  March  to 
July,  especially  at  night ; but  in  the  cage,  during  the  whole 
year  except  at  moulting  time.  A single  bird  will  enliven  a 
whole  street,  so  pure,  distinct,  and  clear  is  his  note.  His 
memory,  also,  is  so  good,  that  he  will  learn  several  airs  and 
melodies  without  mixing  them;  and  sometimes  even  to 
imitate  words.  Neither  does  he  forget  what  he  has  once 
well  acquired. 


The  European  blackbird  is  about  the  size  of  the  song  thrush, 
nine  inches  and  a half  long,  of  which  the  tail  comprises  four 
inches.  The  beak  is  one  inch  long,  and  of  a golden-yellow ; 
the  irides  dark-brown ; the  feet  black,  and  fourteen  lines  high. 
The  male  is  entirely  of  a deep-black ; the  female  black-brown, 
rusty-colored  on  the  breast,  and  with  an  ash-colored  tinge 
upon  the  abdomen;  the  throat,  spotted  with  light  and  dark- 
brown  ; the  beak  and  the  feet,  black-brown,  appearing  also  to 
be  rather  larger  and  heavier,  and  hence  it  has  sometimes  been 
considered  a distinct  species. 


FOOD  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


When  wild,  the  blackbird,  like  other  species  of  thrush, 
feeds  on  all  kinds  of  edible  berries,  such  as  the  elder, 
cherry,  and  mountain  ash ; and  when  this  food  is  not  abund- 
ant, it  satisfies  itself  with  the  tips  of  the  white  thorn.  At  this 
time,  it  often  seeks  for  insects  near  the  vicinity  of  warm 
springs. 

In  confinement,  these  birds  are  content  with  the  first  kind  of 
universal  paste,  described  at  page  13,  but  will  also  eat  bread, 
meat,  and  most  kinds  of  food  that  comes  to  table.  The  young, 
which  must  be  taken  from  the  nest  when  their  quills  have 
but  just  sprung,  can  be  reared  upon  roll  steeped  in  milk. 

The  blackbird  should  be  kept  in  a large  cage,  for  it  is  not 
prudent  to  allow  it  to  associate  with  other  birds,  as  either 
through  covetousness  or  caprice,  it  will  attack  the  smaller 
kinds,  and  even  peck  them  to  death.  Like  all  the  allied 
species,  this  bird  is  fond  of  frequent  bathing,  and  consequently 
should  be  amply  supplied  with  the  means.  In  captivity, 
he  will  live  from  twelve  to  fifteen  years,  especially  if  his 
, food  be  varied. 




4 


72 


THE  EUROPEAN  BLACKBIRD. 


DISEASES. 


The  blackbird  is  particularly  subject  to  a stoppage  of  the 
oil  gland,  which  may  be  softened  by  the  application  of  fresh 
butter,  mixed  up  with  a good  deal  of  sugar,  the  aperture  being 
enlarged  by  gently  distending  it  with  a needle,  or  a small 
knife ; but  a lead  salve,  or  rather  a salve  of  litharge  of  silver, 
white  lead,  wax,  and  olive  oil,  which  must  be  ordered  at  an 
apothecary’s,  opens  it  best.  The  usual  remedy  is  to  pierce  it 
with  a needle,  or  to  cut  off  the  hardened  gland.  If  this  evil 
have  not  yet  too  severely  affected  the  health  of  the  bird,  it 
may  be  sought  to  be  remedied  by  puncturing  the  gland,  com- 
pressing it  frequently,  bathing  the  bird  with  a syringe,  and 
plucking  out  some  of  the  feathers  of  the  tail.  The  accumulated 
fat  is  absorbed  in  the  renewal  of  the  feathers,  when  the  gland 
resumes  its  natural  functions. 


A 


THE  RICE  BUNTING. 


Synonymes. 


Icterus  agripennis , Emberiza  oryzivora. 
Ortolan  agripenne,  Ortolan  de  riz, 
Reiss  Ortolan,  Fettammer  von  Carolina, 
Hortelano  de  arroz,  Hortelano  con 
plumas  agrias, 

Cenchramo  d’arroz,  Cenchramo  com 
pennas  agudas, 

Ortolano  di  riso, 

Rice  Bunting,  Rice  Troopial,  Rice  Bird, 
Reed  Bird,  Boblink,  Bob-o-link,  Bob 
Lincoln,  Bob  Linkling,  Skunk  Black- 
bird, Meadow  Bird,  Butter  Bird, 


Of  Ornithologists. 
Of  the  French. 

Of  the  Germans. 

Of  the  Spaniards. 

Of  the  Portuguese. 
Of  the  Italians. 

( Of  the  British  and 
} Anglo-Americans. 


SHIS  well-known  and  truly  migratory  bird,  familiarly 
known  to  everybody  by  the  name  of  “ Bob  Lincoln, ’’ 
who,  as  a stranger,  perhaps,  thinks  it  a point  of  polite- 
ness thus  to  announce  himself,  as  he  sits  on  a rail  of  the  fence? 
or  the  branch  of  a tree,  on  his  annual  return  in  the  spring  from 
the  south,  inhabits  the  whole  continent  of  America,  from 
Labrador  to  Mexico ; although  his  winter  residence  appears  to 
be  more  confined  to  Cuba,  Jamaica,  and  other  West-India 
Islands  than  to  the  main. 

< i 


74 


THE  RICE  BUNTING. 


In  the  month  of  May,  these  birds  fix  their  abodes  in  the 
“savannahs”  of  Ohio  and  Michigan,  and  the  cool  grassy 
“meadows”  of  New  York,  Canada,  and  New  England  for  the 
purpose,  principally,  for  hatching  and  rearing  their  young. 
The  song  of  the  male  continues,  with  but  little  interruption, 
during  the  period  of  incubation,  and  his  chant,  at  all  times 
very  similar,  is  both  singular  and  pleasant.  “ Often,  like  the 
skylark,  mounted  and  hovering  on  the  wing,  at  a small  height 
above  the  field,  as  he  passes  along  from  one  tree  top  or  weed 
to  another,  he  utters  such  a jingling  melody  of  short  variable 
notes,  so  confused,  rapid,  and  continuous,  that  it  appears 
almost  like  the  blending  song  of  several  different  birds. 
Many  of  these  tones  are  very  agreeable,  but  they  are  delivered 
with  such  rapidity  that  the  ear  can  scarcely  separate  them. 
The  general  effect,  however,  like  all  the  simple  efforts  of 
nature,  is  good,  and  when  several  are  chanting  forth  in  the 
same  meadow,  the  concert  is  very  cheerful,  though  monotonous, 
and  somewhat  quaint.  Among  the  few  phrases  that  can  be  dis- 
tinguished, the  liquid  sound  of  Bob-6-lee , or  Bob-o-link , Bob-o- 
linke , is  very  distinct. 

“ To  give  an  idea  of  the  variable  extent  of  song,  and  even  an 
imitation,  in  some  measure,  of  the  chromatic  period  and  air  of 
this  familiar  and  rather  favorite  resident,  the  boys  of  this  part 
of  New  England,  [Cambridge,]  make  him  shout  among  others, 
the  following  ludicrous  dunning  phrase,  as  he  rises  and  hovers 
on  the  wing  near  his  mate: — 4 ’ Bob-o-link,  ’ Bob-o-link , ’Tom 
Denny , ’ Tom  Denny — ’ Come  pay  me  the  two-and-six-pence  youHve 
owed  more  than  a year  and  a half  ego ! — 'tshe  ’ tshe  ’ tshe , 'tsh  ’ tsh 
’tshej  modestly  diving  at  the  same  instant  down  into  the  grass, 
as  if  to  avoid  altercation.  However  puerile  this  odd  phrase 
may  appear,  it  is  quite  amusing  to  find  how  near  it  approaches 
to  the  time,  and  expression  of  the  notes,  when  pronounced  in  a 
hurried  manner.”  * 


This  relish  for  song  and  merriment,  confined  wholly  to  the 
male,  diminishes  as  the  period  of  incubation  advances,  and 
when  the  young  brood  begin  to  flutter  around  their  parents, 


THE  RICE  BUNTING. 


75 


the  song  becomes  less  freqent.  Sometimes  the  female  is 
inclined  to  have  a second  brood,  for  which  preparation  is  made 
while  she  is  yet  engaged  in  rearing  the  first;  but  the  male 
generally  loses  his  musical  talent  about  the  first  week  in  July; 
from  which  time,  or  perhaps  earlier,  his  spring  or  pied  dress 
begins  gradually  to  be  laid  aside  for  the  more  humble  brownish- 
black  and  brownish-yellow  garb  of  the  female,  the  whole,  both 
old  and  young,  then  appearing  nearly  in  the  same  songless 
livery,  uttering  only  a chink  of  alarm  when  surprised. 

When  the  voice  of  the  male  begins  to  fail,  with  the  progress 
of  the  exhausting  moult,  he  flits  over  the  fields  in  a restless 
manner,  and  merely  utters  a broken  ’ bdb'lee  ’ hoVlee , or  with  his 
songless  mate,  at  length,  a ’ weet  ’ weet , Vleet  Uleet , or  a noisy  and 
disagreeable  cackling  chirp.  But  at  the  early  dawn  of  day, 
while  the  tuneful  talent  of  the  species  is  yet  unabated,  the 
effect  of  their  awakening  and  faultering  voices,  jingling 
throughout  the  wide  expanse  of  meadows  is  singular  and 
grand.  These  sounds  mingle  like  the  noise  of  a distant  torrent, 
which  alternately  subsides  and  rises  on  the  breeze,  as  the 
performers  awake  or  relapse  into  rest ; finally,  they  become 
more  distinct  and  tumultuous,  till,  with  the  opening  day,  they 
assume  the  intelligible  character  of  their  ordinary  song. 

From  the  varied  and  changing  plumage  of  this  pleasing,  and 
in  some  respects  ludicrous  bird,  as  well  as  for  the  singularity 
of  his  song,  he  is  eagerly  sought  after  by  fanciers,  and  usually 
commands  a fair  price.  Large  numbers  are  annually  captured 
in  the  Northen  States  in  trap  cages  and  fed,  almost  immediately 
after  which,  they  resume  their  song.  Many  are  purchased  and 
carried  to  Europe,  often  to  the  disappointment  of  the  adven- 
turer, in  regard  to  his  profits,  as,  by  the  time  they  reach  their 
destination,  they  change  their  livery  and  cease  to  sing. 

FOOD  AND  MANAGEMENT. 

The  food  of  the  rice  buntings  varies  according  to  the  season 
and  locality  in  which  they  reside.  Although  on  their  early 
^ arrival  at  the  north  it  consists  of  grubs,  worms,  caterpillars,  ^ 

' $3SS 


76 


THR  RICE  BUNTING. 


I 

beetles,  grasshoppers,  crickets,  ground  spiders,  &c.,  they 
frequently  feed  on  the  seeds  of  dandelions  and  docks,  the  j 
former  of  which  are  oily  and  sweet.  Later  in  the  season,  and 
previous  to  leaving  their  native  regions,  they  feed  principally 
on  various  kinds  of  grass  seeds,  paricularly  those  of  millet  or 
other  allied  species  (Panicums).  If  short  of  other  food,  they 
also  attack  the  ripened  fields  of  barley,  wheat,  and  oats,  in 
which  they  show  their  taste  for  plunder,  and  flock  together 
like  other  blackbirds. 

About  the  middle  of  August,  vast  parties  of  these  birds  enter 
the  states  of  New  York  and  Pennsylvania  on  their  way  south, 
where,  along  the  margins  of  the  large  rivers,  they  find  an 
abundant  means  of  subsistence,  during  their  short  stay,  on  the 
seeds  of  wild  rice  (Zizania).  As  soon  as  the  cool  nights  of 
October  set  in,  and  the  wild  rice  crops  begin  to  fail,  these  birds 
take  their  departure  from  New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania,  and 
in  their  further  progress  through  the  Southern  States,  they 
congregate  in  large  numbers  in  the  rice  fields,  upon  which 
they  greedily  feed,  and,  before  the  crop  is  gathered,  they  have 
already  made  their  appearance  in  Cuba  and  Jamaica,  where 
they  subsist  on  the  seeds  of  the  Guinea  grass,  (Sorghum,)  and 
become  so  fat  as  truly  to  deserve  the  name  of  “ butter  birds,” 
and  are  highly  esteemed  for  the  table. 

In  a state  of  captivity,  the  food  of  this  bird,  during  spring  and 
summer,  should  resemble  as  nearly  as  possible  that  of  nature ; 
but  in  winter,  he  may  be  fed  on  rice,  boiled  in  milk,  millet, 
Canary  seeds,  wheaten  bread,  soaked  in  water,  and  minced 
animal  food,  containing  no  seasoning  nor  salt. 


THE  RAVEN. 


Synonymes . 


Corvtis  cor  ax, 

Corbeau, 

Gemein  Rabe,  Koikrabe, 
Cuervo, 

Corvo, 

Raven,  Crow,  Corby, 


Of  Ornitholog  sts. 
Of  the  French. 

Of  the  Germans. 

Of  the  Spaniards. 

{ Of  the  Italians  and 
f Portuguese. 

{ Of  the  British  and 
( Anglo-Americans. 


F all  birds  which  have  a convex,  round,  knife-shaped 
bill,  furnished  at  the  base  with  hair  projecting  for- 
wards, in  other  words,  of  all  that  belong  to  the  tribe  of 
crows,  this,  from  the  breadth  of  its  tongue,  is  the  most  easily 
taught  to  imitate  the  human  voice.  On  the  ground,  he  walks 
in  a stately  manner,  his  motions  exhibiting  a kind  of  thoughtful 
consideration  almost  amounting  to  gravity.  His  ordinary 
voice  consists  of  a hoarse  croak,  resembling  the  syllable  crock 
or  cruck ; but  he  frequently  emits  a note  not  unlike  the  sound 
of  a sudden  gulp,  or  the  syllable  cluck , which  he  seems  to  utter 
when  in  a sportive  mood ; for,  although  ordinarily  grave,  the 
A raven  sometimes  indulges  in  a frolic,  performing  somersets 


78 


THE  RAVEN. 


who  studied  to  acquire  this  knowledge,  while  others  carried 
iheir  folly  so  far  as  to  believe  that,  by  eating  the  heart  and 
viscera  of  this  bird,  they  could  acquire  its  prophetic  powers. 

The  raven  may  be  said  to  possess  a social  disposition ; for, 
after  the  breeding  season  has  passed,  flocks  are  often  seen  in 
the  northern  parts  of  Europe  and  the  adjacent  islands,  amount- 
ing to  one  or  more  hundreds.  These  birds  can  perceive  an 
object,  as  a dead  carcass,  at  a great  distance,  but  that  they  can 
^ smell  carrion  a quarter  of  a mile  off,  we  have  no  satisfactory  A 
Blfr- - " 1 - — 


and  various  evolutions  in  the  air.  When  divination  formed  a 
portion  of  the  popular  belief  in  Europe,  this  bird  was  held  in 
considerable  repute.  Trouble  was  even  taken  to  study  its 
actions  and  all  the  circumstances  attending  its  flight,  and  the 
various  modulations  of  its  voice.  Of  these,  sixty-four  different 
variations  were  enumerated,  without  including  the  more  deli- 
cate intonations,  exceedingly  difficult  to  distinguish,  to  detect 
which,  however,  an  excessively  fine  ear  was  requisite,  as  its 
cry,  crock  and  cruck , is  so  simple ! Every  distinct  change  had 
its  peculiar  signification,  and  there  were  not  wanting  people 


THE  RAVEN. 


79 


proof,  neither  need  we  believe  that  they  can ; for  as  we  may 
account  for  the  phenomenon  by  their  sight,  it  is  unnecessary 
to  have  recourse  to  their  other  faculties.  Ravens  have  cha- 
racter in  their  flight,  as  men  have  in  their  walk.  A poet 
sauntering  by  a river,  a conchologist  or  fisherman  hunting  along 
the  shore  for  shells,  a sportsman  searching  the  woods  and 
fields  for  game,  a lady  running  home  from  a shower,  or  a 
gentleman  retreating  from  a mad  bull,  move  each  in  a different 
manner,  suiting  the  action  to  the  occasion.  In  like  manner, 
ravens,  as  well  as  other  birds,  might  communicate  intelligence, 
perhaps,  several  miles  distant,  judging  by  the  flight  of  their 
neighbors,  that  they  had  a prize  in  view.  In  this  way,  a 
system  of  telegraphing  could  be  extended  over  a large  extent 
of  country,  and  a great  number  of  birds  might  be  made  to 
assemble  in  a single  day. 

When  domesticated  and  treated  with  kindness,  the  European 
raven,  as  well  as  our  native  variety,  becomes  attached  to  his 
owner,  and  will  follow  him  about  the  garden  or  house,  with  all 
the  familiarity  of  a confiding  friend. 


FOOD  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


Although  the  raven  is  omnivorous,  its  chief  food  is  carrion, 
oy  which  is  here  meant  the  carcases  of  sheep,  horses,  cattle, 
deer,  and  other  quadrupeds,  dolphins  and  cetaceous  animals  in 
general,  as  well  as  fishes  that  have  been  cast  ashore.  In 
autumn,  it  sometimes  commits  great  havoc  among  grain,  and 
in  spring,  it  occasionally  destroys  young  lambs.  It  has  also 
been  accused  of  killing  diseased  sheep  by  picking  out  their 
eyes;  but  of  this  there  is  no  satisfactory  evidence.  It  annoys 
the  housewives  sometimes  by  flying  off  with  young  poultry, 
and  especially  by  breaking  and  sucking  eggs  which  the  ducks 
or  hens  may  have  deposited,  as  they  frequently  do,  among  the 
herbage. 

When  these  birds  are  intended  to  fly  about,  the  young  must 
be  removed  when  half  fledged,  about  twelve  days  after  they 


-mm 


THE  JJAVEN. 


are  hatched,  and  fed  upon  meat,  snails,  and  earth  worms ; they 
are  also  accustomed  to  eat  bread  and  roll  steeped  in  milk. 
The  description  of  food  they  seek,  when  at  large,  as  young 
hares,  birds,  eggs,  mice,  young  geese,  chickens,  snails,  pears, 
cherries,  &c.,  renders  them  partly  injurious  and  partly 
beneficial. 

This  bird  can  be  allowed  to  run  at  large,  or  fly  about,  and  if 
reared  from  the  nest,  which  must  be  the  case  if  he  is  to  be 
taught  to  speak,  he  will  return  to  the  place  of  feeding,  upon 
calling  him  Jack , the  name  he  usually  bears.  All  glittering 
metal,  especially  gold,  must  be  hidden  from  him,  or  he,  like 
some  other  bipeds,  will  carry  it  off.  To  facilitate  his  speaking, 
or  to  give  his  tongue  greater  freedom,  which  is  necessary  for 
articulate  sounds,  the  tongue  chord  is  sometimes  loosened  with 
the  view  of  increasing  or  heightening  his  powers  of  speech. 
Individuals,  however,  have  been  heard  to  speak  with  an  un- 
loosened tongue.  The  raven  is  naturally  a long-lived  bird, 
individuals  having  been  known  to  live  upwards  of  one 
hundred  years. 


PIGEONS 


THE  ROCK  PIGEON,  OR  WILD  DOVE. 


Synonymes. 


Columba  livia, 

Colorabe,  Biset  sauvage, 
Holztaube, 

Paloma  toreaz,  Paloma  del 
campo, 

Pombo  bravo, 

Colombo  salvatico, 

Biset,  Wild  Rock  Pigeon, 
White-Rumped  Pigeon, 
Rock  Dove,  Wild  Dove, 


Of  Ornithologists. 
Of  the  French. 

Of  the  Germans. 

Of  the  Spaniards. 

Of  the  Portuguese. 
Of  the  Italians. 

( Of  the  British  and 
( Anglo-Americans. 


HE  rock  or  wild  pigeon  of  Europe  is  well  known  as 
the  inhabitant  of  the  pigeon  houses  in  various  parts  of 
the  world,  or  “ dove  cots,”  as  they  are  more  frequently 
called,  buildings  expressly  erected  for  the  purpose  of  contain- 
ing colonies  of  these  birds.  In  this  state,  where  they  enjoy  a 

. ^ perfect  freedom  of  action,  and  are  nearly  dependant  upon  their  a 

SI  4* 

— _ — - — ■ — $8®. 


82 


PIGEONS. 


f 


own  exertions  for  support,  they  can  scarcely  be  called 
“ reclaimed,”  much  less  “ domesticated.”  Man,  indeed,  has 
only  taken  advantage  of  certain  habits  peculiar  to  the  species, 
and  bv  the  substitution  of  an  artificial  for  a real  cavern,  (their 
natural  habitation,)  to  which  the  pigeon  house  may  be  com- 
pared, has  brought  it  into  a kind  of  voluntary  subjection, 
without  violating,  or  at  least  greatly  infringing  upon  its 
natural  condition,  and  has  rendered  it  subservient  to  his 
benefit  and  use. 


In  its  natural  state,  the  bill  of  this  bird  is  blackish-brown; 
the  nostril  membrane  red,  sprinkled,  as  it  were,  with  a white  * 
powder ; the  irides,  pale  reddish-orange ; the  head  and  throat, 
bluish-grey;  the  sides  of  the  neck  and  upper  part  of  the 
breast  are  dark  lavender-purple,  glossed  with  shades  of  green 
and  purplish-red ; the  lower  part  of  the  breast,  abdomen,  wing 
coverts,  as  well  as  the  upper  mandible,  bluish-grey,  the  greater 
averts  and  secondaries  are  barred  with  black,  forming  two  A 


DESCRIPTION. 


m > 


PIGEONS. 


83  f 


broad  and  distinct  bars  across  the  closed  wings ; the  lower  part 
of  the  back  is  white ; the  rump  and  tail  coverts,  bluish-grey ; the 
tail,  deep-grey,  with  a broad  black  bar  at  the  end  ; the  legs  and 
feet  are  purplish-red;  the  wings,  when  closed,  reach  within 
half  an  inch  of  the  end  of  the  tail. 


OftIGEN  OF  FANCY  PIGEONS  AND  THE  COMMON 
HOUSE  DOVE. 

It  is  from  the  wild  rock  pigeon,  (C.  livia,)  that  all  those 
numerous  varieties,  or,  as  they  are  frequently  termed,  44  races,” 
of  the  common  inhabitants  of  the  dove  cot  have  descended, 
which  are  so  highly  prized,  and  fostered  with  such  care  and 
attention  by  the  fancier,  or  amateur  breeder ; for,  however 
diversified  their  forms,  colors,  or  peculiarity  of  habit  may  be, 
they  are  all  considered  as  having  originated  from  a few  acci- 
dental varieties  of  the  common  house  pigeon,  and  not  from  any 
cross  of  that  bird  with  other  species,  no  signs  nor  marks 
whatever  of  such  being  apparent  in  any  variety  known  to  us. 

In  fact,  the  greater  part  of  them  owe  their  existence  to  the 
interference  and  art  of  man;  for,  by  separating  from  the  wild 
rock  pigeon,  such  accidental  varieties  as  have  occasionally 
occurred,  by  subjecting  them  to  captivity  and  familiarisation , 
and  by  assorting  and  pairing  them  together,  as  fancy  or 
caprice  suggested,  he  has,  at  intervals,  generated  all  the 
various  races,  and  peculiar  casts,  which,  it  is  well  known, 
when  once  produced,  may  be  perpetuated  for  an  indefinite 
period,  by  being  kept  separate  from,  and  unmixed  with,  others  ; 
or,  in  other  words,  what  is  commonly  termed  breeding 
44  in-and-in.” 

Indeed,  the  fact,  that  all  the  varieties,  however  much  they 
may  differ  in  color,  size,  or  other  particulars,  if  permitted, 
breed  freely  and  indiscriminately  with  each  other,  and  produce 
a progeny  equally  prolific,  is  another  and  a convincing  proof 
of  their  common  and  self-same  origin ; for  it  is  one  of  those 
"nivcrsal  laws  of  nature,  which,  if  once  set  aside  or  not  ^ 


84 


PIGEONS. 


v enforced,  would  plunge  all  animated  matter  into  indescribable 
confusion,  that  the  offspring  produced  by  the  intercourse  of 
different,  (that  is,  distinct  species,)  is  incapable  of  further 
increase.  That  such  an  intercourse  may  be  effected,  is  well 
known ; but  it  is  generally  under  peculiar  or  artificial  circum- 
stances, and  rarely  when  the  animals,  birds,  or  whatever  they 
may  be,  are  in  their  natural  state,  and  in  a condition  to  make 
their  own  election.  Thus  it  is  in  the  crosses  obtained  in  a 
state  of  confinement,  between  the  Canary  and  goldfinch, 
linnet,  &c.  But  in  all  these  instances,  the  progeny  are 
invariably  “ mules,”  and  as  a general  rule,  are  incapable  of 
further  production ; for  although  they  may  exhibit  the  passions 
natural  to  the  sexes,  and  the  females  may  produce  eggs, 
which,  in  general,  even  with  extreme  care,  are  found  addled 
and  incapable  of  being  hatched.  Such,  I may  add,  is  the  case 
with  hybrids  of  some  of  the  crosses  themselves ; for  the  mongrel 
progeny  of  the  wild  turtle  dove,  ( Turtur  communis ,)  of  Europe, 
with  the  turtle  of  the  aviary,  (T.  risoria ,)  has  been  proved,  by 
frequent  experiments,  to  be  barren,  although  the  two  species 
whence  it  originated  appear  to  be  closely  allied,  and  a mixed 
breed  is  easily  procured ; and  such  I am  justified  in  saying, 
would  be  the  event,  if  a cross  could  be  obtained  between  the 
rock  pigeon,  ( Columba  livia ,)  and  the  European  wood  pigeon, 
(C.  cenas ,)  or  stock  dove,  as  it  is  improperly  called,  or  with  the 
ring  pigeon,  (C.  jpalumbus ,)  or  any  other  species. 


VARIETIES. 

To  describe  or  particularise  all  the  varieties  possessed  by 
fanciers,  would  require  a volume  in  itself ; as,  in  addition  to  the 
permanent  races,  or  those  which,  when  kept  pure,  transmit 
their  likeness  to  their  offspring,  there  are  intermediate  casts 
produced  by  particular  crosses  between  individuals  belonging 
to  the  different  varieties,  and  which,  though  highly  prized  in 
the  first  generation,  are  not  considered  worthy  of  further 


extension ; as  their  progeny  cannot  be  depended  upon,  but  are  a 


PIGEONS. 


found  to  degenerate,  and  are  liable  to  run  into  still  more 
distant  and  less-valued  races. 

Among  the  numerous  varieties  kept  in  aviaries  by  fanciers, 
which  are  deemed  worthy  of  being  perpetuated  by  breeding 
distinct,  the  following  are  held  in  particular  esteem : — 


This  beautiful  variety  of  the  pigeon  tribe  receives  the  name 
of  “ fan-tail,”  from  its  habit  of  spreading  out  the  feathers  of  its 
tail  like  a turkey  cock,  (for  the  same  reason  it  is  called  Pigeon 
paon  by  the  French,)  and  that  of  “ broad-tailed  shaker”  from  its 
breadth  of  tail,  and  a peculiar  quivering  motion  of  the  neck, 
which  is  regarded  as  the  attitude  of  courtship.  From  this 
motion,  it  is  also  sometimes  called  by  the  French  Pigeon 
trembleur  paon. 

This  bird  has  a full  breast,  and  a short,  handsomely-formed, 
arched  neck,  which  it  carries  in  a graceful  swan-like  curve. 
Its  tail,  according  to  the  rules  of  the  fan?y,  should  consist,  at 
the  least,  of  twenty-four  feathers;  and  at  the  most,  of  thirty-six, 
which  number  it  should  not  exceed ; for,  if  the  tail  be  over- 
crowded with  feathers,  the  bird  suffers  it  to  droop,  a defect 
never  overlooked,  although  the  specimen  may  be  faultless  in 
every  other  respect. 

Fan-tails,  whose  plumage  is  pure  white,  are  more  highly 
prized  than  those  displaying  red,  yellow,  blue,  and  black-pied 
colors ; their  carriage  of  the  neck  and  tail  being  considered  by 
far  the  most  striking  and  elegant. 


THE  BROAD  OR  FAN-TAILED  SHAKER. 


PIGEONS. 


Some  persons  discriminate  a variety  which  they  call  the 
“ narrow-tailed  shaker but  this  is  only  a degenerate  breed  of 
the  fan-tail,  or  the  result  of  a cross.  Its  neck  is  shorter  and 
thicker,  back  longer,  and  it  has  not  so  many  tail  feathers  as  the 
broad-tailed  shaker;  neither  does  it  expand  its  tail  so  fully, but 
keeps  the  feathers  rather  closed  one  over  the  other,  so  as  to 
resemble  a fan  when  some  little  way  open.  The  color  of  its 
plumage  is  generally  white ; but  a few  different  tints,  and  even 
an  almond  variety,  are  to  be  met  with  occasionally. 

TUMBLERS. 

These  pretty  pigeons  are  so  called  from  their  peculiar  habit 
of  tumbling  backwards  in  the  air  when  on  the  wing;  besides 
which,  they  soar  to  so  great  a height  as  to  be  almost  lost  to  the 
view;  when  flying,  they  congregate  very  closely  together;  and 
if  they  be  good  birds  and  accustomed  to  each  other,  they  will 
maintain  such  a compact  flight,  that  a dozen  may  almost  be 
covered  with  a large  handkerchief. 

If  the  weather  be  warm  and  bright,  they  may  be  allowed  to 
wing  their  aerial  gambols  for  four  or  five  hours  in  succession ; 
but  care  must  be  taken,  that  no  other  species  of  pigeon  mix 
with  them,  for  if  they  once  become  familiarised  and  fly  with 
others,  they  will  gradually  drop  their  highly-prized  mode  of 
flight,  and  of  course  become  worthless.  They  should  never  be 
let  out  on  a dull,  heavy,  misty  morning,  nor  when  a fog  appears 
to  be  rising,  nor  during  a high  wind ; as  all  such  atmospheric 
variations,  by  causing  desertions  'rom  their  lofts  tend  to 
diminish  the  stock.  A hen  tumbler  should  never  be  allowed 
to  fly  while  with  egg. 

The  most  esteemed  tumblers  do  not  somerset  when  swoop- 
ing along,  but  only  when  they  are  beginning  to  rise,  or  when 
coming  down  to  pitch;  and  to  preserve  this,  and  the  high-flying 
properties  in  his  stock,  the  provident  fancier  must  spare  no 
expence  in  the  purchase  of  one  or  two  first-rate  birds  that  have 
been  used  to  soaring,  as  they  will  be  of  much  service  in  train- 
^ ing  the  young  ones.  • 

— — <sl 


PIGEONS. 


87 


When  the  birds  are  accustomed  to  their  houses,  they  may  be 
turned  out  upon  the  wing,  but  only  once  a-day.  A bright  grey 
morning  is  the  best  time,  especially  for  young  birds;  and  some 
hemp  or  Canary  seeds  must  be  scattered  round  their  cots,  to 
entice  them  in,  when  their  hours  of  liberty  have  expired. 

There  is  a particularly  fine  variety  of  this  pigeon,  which  is 
called  the  “bald-pated  tumbler,”  denoted  by  the  cut  below, 
from  its  having  a beautiful  snowy  white  head;  it  has  pearl 
eyes,  and  in  plumage  is  exceedingly  diversified ; the  tail  and 
flight  feathers,  however,  match  the  head,  which  is  pure  white. 
When  a tumbler,  either  of  a black  or  blue  color,  has  a long 
dash  of  white  from  the  under  jaw  and  cheek  to  a little  way 
down  the  throat,  it  is  called  a “ black”  or  “ blue-bearded”  bird, 


BALD-PATED  TUMBLER. 


as  the  color  may  be ; and  if  this  beard  be  well  shaped,  and  the 
bird  be  clean  in  the  tail  and  flight,  as  before  described,  it  may 
be  reckoned  very  handsome  and  valuable.  When  these 
pigeons  are  dashing  along  in  the  brilliant  sunshine,  the  lively 
contrast  of  their  feathers  adds  much  to  the  vivacity  of  their 
appearance. 

There  is  another  and  still  more  beautiful  variety  of  this 
breed,  called  by  some  fanciers  the  “ ermine  tumbler,”  but 
which  is  generally  known  by  the  name  of  the  “ almond 
tumbler.”  It  is  an  extremely  elegant,  and  highly-prized 
variety,  and  is  derived  from  common  tumblers  judiciously 
matched;  as  yellows,  duns,  whites,  black-splashed,  black- 
^ frizzled,  &c.,  so  as  to  sort  the  feathers.  ^ 

BB&-- — — — — • — - — — ■ —4m 


PIGEONS. 


©gj— 

? 88 

When  in  perfection,  tumblers  are  esteemed  by  many  persons 
to  be  the  prettiest  of  all  the  pigeon  tribe;  and  this  high  opinion 
is  borne  out  by  the  beautiful  diversity  of  their  colors,  which 
are  so  elegant  and  rich,  in  some  birds,  that  they  have  been 
compared  to  a bed  of  tulips.  The  more  they  are  variegated  in 
the  flight  and  tail,  especially  if  the  ground  color  be  yellow,  the 
more  they  are  prized;  and  a fine  bright-yellow  ground  has  the 
precedence  of  all  others,  from  its  being  so  exceedingly  difficult 
to  acquire,  that  twenty  light-colored  birds  may  be  procured  for 
one  displaying  a deep,  richly-tinted  ground. 


THE  CARRIER. 

The  carrier,  Pigeon  de  Turquie , of  the  French,  is  somewhat 
larger  than  most  of  the  common  pigeons;  its  feathers  lie  very 
close  and  smooth,  and  its  neck  is  long  and  straight.  From  the 
lower  part  of  the  head  to  the  middle  of  the  upper  chap,  there  is 
a lump  of  white,  naked,  fungous-looking  flesh,  which  is  denom- 
inated the  “ wattle ;”  this,  in  good  birds,  is  met  by  two  small 
swellings  of  similar  flesh,  which  rise  on  each  side  of  the  under 
chap ; and  if  this  flesh  be  of  blackish  color,  the  bird  is  con- 
sidered very  valuable.  The  circle  round  the  black  pupil  of  the 
eye  is  usually  of  a brick-dust-red  color;  but  if  it  be  of  a 
brilliant  red  tint,  it  adds  considerably  to  the  value  of  the  bird  ; 
this  circle  is  surrounded  by  another  of  naked  fungous  flesh, 
generally  about  the  breadth  of  a half  eagle,  the  greater  the 
K breadth  of  which,  the  more  it  is  admired.  When  the  incrusted  a 

%m> — <es 


PIGEONS. 


flesh  round  the  eye  is  very  thick  and  broad,  it  shows  that 
the  pigeon  will  prove  a good  breeder,  and  will  rear  fine 
young  ones. 

The  properties  attributed  to  the  carrier,  and  prized  by 
fanciers,  are  three  in  the  head,  three  in  the  eye,  three  in  the 
wattle,  and  three  in  the  beak.  The  properties  of  the  head  con- 
sist in  its  being  flat,  long,  and  straight ; for  instance,  if  the  head 
be  very  long,  narrow,  and  flat,  it  is  reckoned,  in  shape,  perfect  ; 
if  the  contrary,  it  is  termed  a “ barrel  head.”  The  properties 
of  the  wattle  of  the  eye  are  its  breadth  and  circular,  uni- 
form shape ; for,  if  one  part  appear  to  be  more  scanty  than 
another,  it  is  termed  “ pinch-eyed and  is  of  comparative  little 
value ; while,  if  it  be  full,  even,  and  free  from  irregularities,  it 
forms  a “ rose  eye,”  and  is  highly  prized.  The  wattle  should 
be  wide  across  the  beak,  short  from  the  head  to  the  point  of 
the  beak,  and  lean  a little  forward  from  the  head ; as  the  bird 
is  said  to  be  “ peg- wattled”  if  it  lie  flat.  The  beak  must  be 
black,  long,  straight,  and  thick ; if  it  be  an  inch  and  a half  in 
length,  it  is  considered  a long  beak,  but  it  must  never  measure 
less  than  an  inch  and  a quarter;  if  the  beak  be  crooked,  (hook- 
beaked,)  or  spindle-beaked,  the  value  of  the  bird  is  much 
diminished.  This  variety,  in  general,  is  either  dun  or  black  in 
color,  although  white,  blue-splashed,  and  pied  specimens 
occur;  the  black  and  dun  birds  are  usually  the  most  perfect 
in  their  properties;  but  as  the  blues,  whites,  and  pieds  are 
very  rare,  even  inferior  birds  of  these  colors  are  of  consider- 
value. 

THE  HORSEMAN. 

Many  fanciers  suppose  the  “ horseman  ” to  be  a cross 
breed,  either  between  a tumbler  and  a carrier,  or  a pouter 
and  a carrier,  and  then  again  bred  from  a carrier.  In 
shape,  it  resembles  the  carrier,  but  it  is  smaller  in  all  its 
proportions;  its  body  being  less,  its  neck  shorter  and  the 
fungous-looking  flesh  round  its  eyes  not  exuberant,  so  that 
there  is  a greater  space  between  the  wattle  on  the  beak,  than 
^ ^ that  round  the  eye.  ^ 




PIGEONS. 


The  most  approved  colors  for  this  variety  of  pigecn  are  the 
blue,  and  blue-pied,  as  they  are  usually  the  best  breeders. 
They  should  be  flown  twice  a-day  regularly,  when  young ; and 
as  they  gain  strength  on  the  wing,  they  should  be  allowed  to 


THE  HORSEMAN. 


range  loose,  without  any  other  birds  in  company.  This 
variety  is  the  kind  generally  employed  in  carrying  letters ; the 
genuine  carriers  being  much  too  scarce  and  valuable  to  be 
commonly  used. 


THE  POUTER. 


All  pigeons,  as  is  well  known,  have  the  capability  of  in- 
flating their  crops  with  air;  and  a fine  pigeon,  with  breast 
feathers  glossed  with  metallic  tints,  strutting  and  bowing,  with 
an  inflated  crop,  around  his  mate,  presents  no  uninteresting 
spectacle;  but  this  remark  will  not  apply  to  this  bird.  In 
the  “ English  pouter,”  or  “ pouting  horseman,”  there  is  nothing 


PIGEONS. 


pleasing  in  its  appearance  nor  graceful  in  its  proportions; 
indeed,  the  inflation  of  the  voluminous  crop,  rendering  an  erect, 
stiff',  and  apparently  constrained  attitude  necessary,  gives  an 
aspect  of  distortion,  or  a want  of  a due  balance  of  parts. 

The  pouter  is  of  large  size,  often  measuring  eighteen  inches 
in  length  from  the  tip  of  the  beak  to  the  end  of  the  tail.  The 
chest  is  not  really  voluminous,  though  it  appears  enormous 
when  the  crop  is  distended  with  air ; the  back  is  concave,  and 
the  tail  ample ; the  tarsi  are  very  long,  and  covered  with  downy 
feathers.  These  pigeons  are  of  various  colors,  as  blue,  rufous, 
pied,  or  altogether  white.  Those  birds  which  are  tall,  erect, 
with  a very  ample  crop,  and  with  the  colors  of  the  plumage 
regularly  disposed,  and  according  to  certain  fancy  rules,  are 
esteemed  the  most  valuable. 

The  pouter  is  formed  by  a cross  between  the  44  dragon  ” and 
the  44  old  Dutch  cropper,”  which  latter  bird,  except  in  the 
development  of  the  crop,  (whence  its  name,)  had  nothing  to 
recommend  it.  From  this  intermixture,  not  without  much  care 
and  expense,  has  resulted  this  favorite  variety.  The  flight  of 
the  pouter  is  buoyant,  but  not  rapid,  nor  capable  of  being  long 
sustained.  As  varieties  of  the  pouter,  or  rather  as  breeds 
allied  to  it,  may  be  mentioned  the  44  uploper  ” and  the  44  Parisian 
pouter,”  said  to  be  a beautifully-marked  bird ; but  with  these, 

I have  no  personal  acquaintance.' 

Pouters  are  very  expensive  birds  to  rear,  as  the  strain  will 
soon  become  degenerate.  As  the  old  birds  pay  little  attention 
to  the  wants  of  their  young,  it  frequently  happens  that  the  tiny 
creatures  are  starved  to  death.  Careful  fanciers,  therefore,  never 
allow  them  to  hatch  their  own  eggs,  but  shift  them  as  soon  as 
they  are  deposited  under  a hen  44  dragoon,”  that  has  lately 
laid ; and  place  the  eggs  of  the  latter  bird  under  the  pouter,  in 
order  that  she  may  commence  incubation ; otherwise,  she  will 
lay  again  in  a short  time,  which,  often  repeated,  would,  in  all 
probability,  kill  her.  Every  pouter  must  be  kept  by  itself 
during  the  winter  season;  and  their  coops  must  be  lofty,  so 
that  they  may  not  acquire  a stooping  habit,  which  is  a very 
^ great  fault.  In  the  spring,  every  pair  of  pouters  must  have  ^ 
. — 


f 92 


PIGEONS. 


two  pair  of  dragoons  to  tend  and  feed  them;  but  care  must  be 
taken  that  the  dragoons  are  kept  in  a loft  separate  from  the 
pouters,  as  otherwise,  a cross  breed  would  probably  be  the 
result,  and  the  stock  become  degenerate. 

Pouting  horsemen  are  not  so  much  in  repute  as  formerly, 
the  “ almond  tumblers”  having  almost  superseded  them. 


Dragons  are  bred  between  a tumbler  and  a horseman ; and 
by  frequently  crossing  them  with  the  horseman,  they  acquire 
much  strength  and  swiftness.  They  are  exceedingly  good 
breeders  and  kind  nurses,  and  are,  therefore,  often  kept  as 
feeders  for  rearing  young  Leghorn  “ runts,”  pouters,  &c. 

The  dragon  is  somewhat  lighter  and  smaller  than  the  horse- 
man ; and  one  of  its  chief  beauties  consists  in  the  straightness 
of  the  top  of  its  skull  with  that  of  its  beak,  which,  according  to 
the  rules  of  the  fancy,  should  form  almost  a horizontal  line. 
These  birds  should  be  flown  and  trained  while  young,  in  the 
same  way  as  the  horsemen,  which  they  are  considered  to 
surpass  in  swiftness,  in  short  flights  of  from  ten  to  twenty 
miles ; but.  in  longer  distances,  if  the  horsemen  be  well  bred, 
they  will  far  outstrip  the  dragoon. 

THE  JACOBIN. 

This  pigeon,  often  called  a “ Jack,”  is,  when  perfect  in  its 
properties,  extremely  rare.  The  real  Jacobin  is  a very  small 
bird,  and  the  smaller  it  is,  the  more  valuable ; it  has  on  the  ^ ^ 
» 


THE  DRAGOON,  OR  DRAGON. 


PIGEONS. 


hinder  part  of  its  head,  inclining  towards  the  neck,  a range 
of  inverted  feathers,  in  appearance  like  the  cowl,  or  cap,  of  a 
monk ; and  from  this  peculiarity,  it  receives  the  sobriquet  of 
44  Jacobin,”  or  “ capper.”  These  feathers  are  technically  termed 
the  “ hood,”  and  if  they  grow  compact  and  close  to  the  head, 
they  enhance  the  value  of  the  bird  considerably ; the  lower 
part  of  the  hood  is  called  the  “ chain,”  and  the  feathers  com- 
posing it  should  be  long  and  thick. 


A small  head,  very  small  spindle-shaped  beak,  and  beauti- 
fully clean,  pearl  eyes  are  other  properties  of  this  little  pet. 
Yellow,  red,  blue,  and  black  are  the  colors  usually  bred,  and 
in  point  of  color,  the  yellow  birds  are  preferred  before  all 
others;  however,  let  the  color  of  the  body  be  what  it  may, 
according  to  the  rules  of  the  fancy,  the  tail,  flight,  and  head 
must  invariatdy  be  white;  sometimes  the  legs  and  feet  are 
covered  with  feathers. 


THE  CAPUCHIN. 

In  its  properties,  this  variety  is  closely  allied  to  the  Jacobin, 
and  is,  by  some  fanciers,  considered  a cross  between  that  breed 
and  some  other  kind.  It  has  a longer  beak,  and  is  altogether  a 
larger  bird,  than  the  Jacobin;  its  hood  is  extremely  pretty,  but 
it  lacks  the  chain. 


THE  MAWMET. 

The  Mahomet,  commonly  corrupted  to  44  Mawmet,”  is  a beau- 
4 K tiful  cream-colored  bird,  with  bars  of  black  across  its  wings ; 4 ^ 

«sl 


PIGEONS. 


although  the  surface  of  its  feathers  is  of  a cream-color,  the  part 
next  the  body,  the  flue  feathers,  and  even  the  skin,  are  of  a dark 
sooty  tint ; it  is  about  the  size  of  a “ turbit,”  but  it  has  in  place 
of  a frill,  a fine  gullet,  with  a seam  of  beautiful  feathers ; its 
head  is  thick  and  short,  and  its  eyes  orange-color,  surrounded 
by  a small,  naked  circle  of  black  flesh ; it  has  a little  black 
wattle  on  its  beak,  which  is  short  and  stout,  and  somewhat 
resembles  that  of  a bulfinch. 


This  variety  was  originally  brought  from  Barbary.  In  size, 
it  is  somewhat  larger  than  the  Jacobin ; it  has  a short,  thick 
beak,  a small  wattle,  and  a circle  of  thick,  naked,  mcrusted 
flesh  round  its  eyes;  the  wider  this  circle  of  flesh  spreads  roui  f 
the  eye,  and  the  more  brilliant  its  color,  the  more  the  bird 
prized ; the  circle  is  narrow,  at  first,  and  is  not  fully  developed 
until  the  bird  is  three  or  four  years  old. 

The  plumage  of  the  Barb  is  usually  dun  or  black ; but  there 
are  pied  birds  of  both  colors ; these  last  are  held  in  little  esti- 
mation, as  they  are  supposed  to  be  only  half  bred ; when  the 
pinion  feathers  are  dark,  the  irides  of  its  eyes  are  pearl  color ; 
but  when  the  pinions  are  white,  the  irides  are  red.  Some  of 
these  birds  are  ornamented  with  a tuft  of  feathers  rising  from 
the  back  part  of  the  crown  of  the  head. 


This  variety  is  somewhat  larger  than  the  Jacobin.  Its  head 
A is  round,  and  beak  short;  from  the  breast  grows  a tuft  of  fea- 


THE  BARB. 


THE  TURBIT. 


Sfe> 


PIGEONS. 


thers  named  the  “ pnrle spreading  in  opposite  directions,  like 
the  frill  of  a shirt ; and  from  the  beak  to  the  purle  reaches 
the  gullet. 

The  colors  of  this  pigeon  are  mostly  yellow,  dun,  red,  blue, 
and  black;  and  accasionally  chequered.  According  to  the 
fancy,  the  back  of  the  wings  and  tail  should  correspond  in 
color,  except  in  the  yellow  and  red  birds,  whose  tails  should 
be  white.  A stripe  of  black  should  cross  the  wings  of  the 
blue  birds,  but  the  other  body  and  flight  feathers  should  be 
white ; they  are  termed  “ black-shouldered,”  or  “ blue-shoul- 
dered,” as  their  color  may  be ; and  when  of  one  color  only, 


these  pigeons  have  been  sold  as  “owls.”  Turbits  are  also 
chosen  for  the  shortness  of  their  beaks,  and  their  spreading 
“purle;”  and  if  well-trained,  when  young,  they  will  become 
excellent  flyers. 


The  nun  is  greatly  admired,  from  the  elegantly  contrasting 
colors  of  its  plumage.  Its  body  is  gene  rally  white,  and  its  tail 
and  six  flight  feathers  of  its  wings  should  be  either  wholly  red, 
vivid  yellow,  or  black,  as  likewise  its  head,  which  is  adorned 
and  nearly  covered  by  a tuft,  or  “ veil,”  of  pure  white  feathers. 

According  to  its  colors,  the  bird  is  termed  a red,  yellow  or 
black-headed  “ nun,”  as  it  may  happen  to  be;  and  whenever  the 
feathers  vary  from  this  rule,  the  bird  is  termed  “ foul-headed,” 
or  “foul-flighted,”  and  is  greatly  diminished  in  value;  but 
with  such  as  frequently  rear  clean-feathered  birds,  as  perfect  A 


THE  TURBIT. 


THE  NUN. 


PIGEONS. 


¥ 96 


*»$ 


specimens,  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  obtain  one  entirely  free 
from  foul  feathers.  Smallness  of  head  and  beak,  a pearl  eye, 
and  largeness  of  veil,  are  desirable  properties  in  this  bird. 


THE  HELMET. 

This  variety  is  a somewhat  larger  bird  than  the  nun.  Its 
head,  tail,  and  flight  are  mostly  of  one  color,  either  yellow, 
blue,  or  black  tint,  and  the  other  parts  of  the  body  are  generally 
white ; its  head  bears  a delicate  tuft  of  feathers,  differing  in 
color  from  the  body,  and  in  form  like  a helmet.  It  is  a pretty 
bird,  but  is  not  a fine  flyer.  It  is  most  useful  as  a nurse. 

To  the  varieties  already  enumerated;  I might  add  several 
others,  as  the  “ owl,”  the  44  ruff,”  the  “ spot,”  the  “ lace,”  the 
“ finnikin,”  and  the  44  Friezland  runt;”  but  these  breeds  are  not 
common,  nor  are  they  generally  held  of  much  account.  As 
for  the  French,  Leghorn  and  the  Spanish  44  runts,”  they  are  not 
to  be  placed  among  the  fancy  varieties,  being  remarkable 
merely  for  their  size,  and  are  appopriate  for  the  dove  cot. 


FOOD. 

In  a state  of  nature,  the  rock  dove  feeds  on  grain  and  seeds 
of  various  kinds,  as  well  as  on  vegetables.  According  to 
Montagu,  it  also  devours  some  kinds  of  snails,  and  is  particu- 
larly fond  of  the  Helix  virgata. 

In  a state  of  confinement  or  familiarisation , these  birds  are 
fond  of  almost  every  kind  of  grain,  but  old  tares  are  found,  by 
experience,  to  be  the  best  for  them ; horse  beans,  particularly 
the  smaller  sorts,  as  small  ticks,  are  considered  next  to  tares  in 
point  of  nutritive  properties;  oats,  barley,  wheat,  and  peas, 
may  be  given  occasionally,  and  will  be  found  wholesome 
varieties  of  diet.  Pigeons  are  very  fond  of  rape,  hemp  and 
Canary  seeds,  which,  however,  should  only  be  given  occasion- 
ally; and  new  tares  should  especially  be  given  to  young  birds 
A very  sparingly.  Many  fanciers  make  a composition  of  salt,  A 

§n» — . <$®a 


FIGEONS. 


lime  mortar,  and  a little  clay,  mixed  with  spicy  seeds,  as 
caraway,  which  they  allow  their  pigeons  to  feed  upon  at  will. 

The  seed  may  be  scattered  on  the  floor  amongst  the  gravel, 
although  many  persons  recommend  little  contrivances  to  put  it 
in,  on  the  score  of  keeping  it  cleaner  and  better. 


DOMESTIC  ACCOMMODATION  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


Familiarised,  or  fancy  pigeons  are  generally  confined  in 
aviaries,  or  lodged  in  appropriate  buildings  attached  to  or  near 
the  house  of  the  breeder,  in  order  that  they  may  be  regularly 
and  easily  fed,  cleansed,  and  duly  attended  to  in  all  matters 
having  reference  to  their  condition  and  health ; for  their  natural 
instinct  and  feeling  of  liberty  have  been  so  nearly  effaced,  or 
placed  in  abeyance  by  the  captivity  to  which  they  have  been 
subjected,  for  so  many  generations,  that  they  have  become 
nearly  dependent  upon  man  for  support,  and  have  lost  the 
power  or  capability,  even  when  allowed  to  fly  at  large,  of 
looking  for  and  finding  their  own  food. 

In  these  buildings,  it  is  common  to  erect  a certain  number  of 
boxes,  or  divisions,  against  the  walls  or  sides,  each  calculated 
to  accommodate  a pair  of  pigeons,  with  their  nest  and  young. 
They  succeed  best  when  separate  and  distinct  from  each  other, 
with  a small  platform,  and  an  entrance  just  large  enough  to 
admit  the  bird ; as  when  disposed  in  a continuous  row,  and 
open  in  front,  they  are  apt  to  interfere  with  each  other,  and, 
by  their  jealousies  and  contentions,  prevent  the  due  increase 
of  eggs  and  young. 

The  most  common  shape  for  a pigeon  house  is  the  one  repre- 
sented in  the  succeeding  illustration,  but  the  form  is  immaterial. 
It  is,  however,  necessary  that  the  holes  should  be  large  enough 
for  the  birds  to  turn  round  in  with  ease ; and  there  should  be  in 
front  shelves  and  partitions  of  from  seven  to  nine  inches  in 
depth,  so  as  to  keep  the  couples  apart,  and  afford  them  resting 
places ; and  two  holes  for  each  couple,  between  each  partition, 
will  be  desirable.  The  cot  should  be  fixed  where  it  will  be 


FIGEONS. 


screened  from  cold  winds,  which  are  extremely  prejudicial  to 
the  birds ; a southern  or  south-western  aspect  should,  therefore, 
if  possible,  be  chosen ; visits  from  cats  and  rats  must  also  be 
carefully  guarded  against. 


If  the  young  fancier  be  enabled  to  fit  up  a loft  over  a stable, 
or  other  out-building,  for  a pigeon  house,  the  best  arrangement 


he  can  adopt  is  that  shown  in  the  above  illustration.  The 
means  for  exit  and  re-entrance  must  be  first  thought  of;  ar.d 
if  there  be  no  window  in  the  loft,  two  holes  must  be  made  in 
the  wall,  at  about  five  feet  from  the  floor,  each  sufficiently 
large  to  admit  a pigeon  easily;  a shelf  should  be  fastened  on 
the  inside,  and  another  on  the  outside,  of  the  said  apertures ; on  ^ 


PIGEON  HOUSE. 


PIGEON  LOFT. 


PIGEONS. 


this  latter  shelf,  a trap,  or  “aerie,”  should  be  affixed,  the 
intent  and  purposes  of  which  I shall  presently  explain.  Ai 
the  upper  part  of  the  loft,  rough  branches  should  be  placed  as 
perches  in  the  manner  shown  in  the  representation.  At  about 
four  feet  from  the  floor,  breeding  boxes,  according  to  the 
number  of  birds  intended  to  be  kept,  should  be  securely  fixed 
to  the  wall,  care  being  taken  to  protect  them  from  rats,  &c. 

Some  fanciers  furnish  their  boxes  with  little  earthenware 
pans,  or  small  baskets,  for  the  birds  to  deposit  their  eggs  in ; 
although  the  eggs  are  not  so  likely  to  be  broken  in  the  baskets 
as  in  the  pans,  the  latter,  if  supplied  with  straw,  are  cleaner 
than  the  baskets ; the  pans  should  vary  in  dimensions,  accord- 
ing to  the  class  of  pigeon  for  which  they  are  designed.  It  is 
well  to  put  two  of  these  receptacles  in  each  little  room,  as  the 
hens  frequently  go  to  the  nest  again  when  their  broods  are 
about  three  weeks  old,  leaving  them  to  the  care  of  their  mates. 
Instead  of  egg  boxes,  shelves  partitioned  off,  and  having 
sliding  fronts  for  the  convenience  of  cleaning,  are  used  ; if  the 
young  fancier  intend  to  keep  “ pouters,”  the  shelves  should  be 
fourteen  inches  in  breadth,  and  at  least  twenty  inches  apart,  so 
that  the  birds  may  not  acquire  the  habit  of  stooping,  which 
depreciates  their  value. 

As  pigeons  drink  differently  from  most  other  birds,  that  is, 
by  taking  a long-continued  draught,  like  cattle,  a fountain,  or 
large-bottomed  glass  bottle,  with  a tolerably  long  neck,  for  water, 
should  be  provided  for  their  house ; it  should  be  placed  on  a 
small  three-legged  stool,  so  that  its  mouth  may  incline  into  an 
earthenware  pan,  into  which  the  water  will  trickle  slowly,  and 
cease  when  it  reaches  the  level  of  the  mouth  of  the  bottle,  and  a 
continued  supply  of  fresh  water  thus  be  kept  up;  two  or  three 
bricks  will  serve  instead  of  a stool,  to  give  the  bottle  the  neces- 
sary elevation. 

To  insure  the  thriving  of  the  birds,  the  loft  and  shelves 
should  be  kept  clean,  and  gravel  strown  on  the  floor;  indeed, 
gravel  must  on  no  account  be  omitted,  as  pigeons  are  exceed- 
ingly fond  of  pecking  it. 

^ The  “ aerie”  before  mentioned,  which  is  fastened  on  the 

mm> 


PIGEONS. 


100 


shelf  outside  of  the  loft,  is  a trap  made  of  laths.  It  has  two  sides 
and  a front  only,  the  wall  of  the  loft  forming  the  back ; the 
front  and  sides  act  upon  hinges,  so  that  they  may  be  thrown 


open,  and  laid  flat  on  the  platform,  as  in  the  above  figure 
A,  B , C ; and  on  the  upper  parts  of  these  flaps  are  fastened 
strings,  united  to  a single  string  in  the  middle  of  the  trap;  the 
string  is  carried  over  the  swivel  E,  at  the  top  of  the  machine, 
to  a hiding  place,  whence  the  owner  can  see  all  that  passes, 
and  when  a bird  alights  within  the  aerie,  he  jerks  the  string, 
the  flaps  are  elevated,  and  the  bird  is  immediately  a prisoner. 
The  aerie,  when  shut,  presents  the  appearance  shown  in  the 
following  illustration.  This  kind  of  trap  is  used  not  only  by 


fanciers,  but  by  amateurs ; and  is  an  important  appendage  to 
the  loft,  both  as  a means  of  self-defence  to  secure  strays,  and 
to  shut  in  their  own  birds.  Among  amateur  fanciers,  the  first- 
mentioned  purpose  is  to  secure  valuable  and  favorite  breeds 
*Vom  being  deteriorated  through  stray  birds  of  no  value  pairing 


AERIE  OPEN. 


AERIE  CLOSED. 


PIGEONS. 


101 


with  them.  When  any  strays  are  taken  in  the  trap,  they  are 
killed  for  the  table,  unless  called  for  and  claimed  by  their 
owners,  within  twenty-four  hours  after  their  capture,  and  a 
trifling  sum  may  then  be  demanded  for  trappage. 

To  ensure  the  purity  of  any  particular  kind,  the  young  males, 
as  soon  as  they  show  symptoms  of  maturity,  which  may  be 
known  by  particular  gesticulations  and  their  cooing  notes,  are 
placed  apart  in  a chamber  appropriated  for  the  purpose,  with  a 
female  of  the  same  variety.  Here  they  remain  till  a mutual 
attachment  has  taken  place,  after  which,  they  may  be  returned 
to  the  general  aviary,  or  dove  house;  for,  when  once  an 
alliance  is  effected,  it  generally  continues  undissolved  and 
inviolate  till  the  death  or  removal  of  one  of  the  parties;  on 
which  account  many  different  varieties  may  be  kept  in  the 
same  aviary,  or  associated  together  in  one  building,  without 
much  apprehension  of  having  a contaminated  breed. 

For  mating,  or  coupling  pigeons,  it  is  a good  plan  to  build 
two  cots,  divided  only  by  a lath  partition,  by  which  means  the 
birds  will  see  each  other,  and  may  feed  out  of  the  same  little 
vessels ; when,  by  giving  them  plenty  of  hemp  seed,  they  will 
soon  be  fit  for  mating.  When  the  hen  sweeps  her  tail,  put  her 
in  the  cock’s  pen,  and  they  will  readily  agree.  Where  it  is 
not  convenient  to  make  this  probationary  pen,  and  you  are 
obliged  to  place  them  both  in  one  coop,  put  the  cock  in  a few 
days  before  his  mate,  that  he  may  get  accustomed  to  it,  and 
feel  himself  master,  especially  if  the  hen  be  high  spirited;  else 
they  will  quarrel  so  fiercely,  that  their  disputes  will  terminate 
in  a total  dislike  to  one  another. 

When  the  pigeons  are  comfortably  matched,  allow  them  the 
full  run  of  the  loft,  to  select  a nest  for  themselves;  or  choose  a 
nest  for  them,  and  inclose  them  in  it  for  several  days,  by  means 
of  a slight  lath  railing,  giving  them  an  abundant  supply  of 
food  and  water  during  the  whole  time.  Both  male  and  female 
engage  in  the  construction  of  the  nest,  and  relieve  each  other 
in  the  task  of  incubation.  Two  eggs  only  are  laid,  and  the 
young  are  hatched  blind,  naked,  and  helpless,  and  sedulously 
fed  and  cherished  by  both  parents.  Several  pairs  of  young 

wfr* - - ■ -« 


Y 102 


PIGEONS. 


are  reared  during  the  season.  The  young  are  fed  for  some 
days  after  exclusion  from  the  egg,  not  on  grain,  nor  insects,  but 
upon  a peculiar  lacteous  secretion,  or  curd-like  matter,  which 
is  poured  out  from  a series  of  glands  in  the  crop  both  of  the 
male  and  female,  which  glands  develope  themselves  into 
activity  by  a mysterious  law  at  the  proper  juncture.  This 
lacveous  fluid  is  very  abundant,  and  will  frequently  drip  from 
the  bills  of  the  pigeons  as  they  approach  their  young.  It  is 
thrown  into  the  open  mouths  of  the  nestlings  by  a kind  of 
exgurgitation,  the  receiving  one  and  the  giver  being  both  in 
agitation.  In  the  course  of  a few  days,  pulse  or  grain, 
moistened  in  the  crops  of  the  parents  and  mixed  with  this 
lacteous  curdy  fluid,  is  given,  the  secretion  gradually  decreas- 
ing as  it  is  less  and  less  required,  till  at  length  peas,  moistened 
or  macerated  in  the  crop,  are  alone  transferred  into  those  of  the 
young. 

About  the  third  day,  some  of  the  ordinary  food,  after  mace- 
ration in  the  crop,  is  added,  its  proportion  being  increased,  till 
at  length,  when  the  young  quit  the  nest,  it  constitutes  their 
food  entirely. 

Though  fancy  pigeons  are  kept  for  the  sake  of  their  beauty 
and  peculiarities,  the  ordinary  dove-house  pigeon  is  reared 
almost  exclusively  for  the  sake  of  its  flesh,  which  is  accounted 
in  most  countries  a delicacy.  But  how  far  the  rearing  of  great 
numbers  of  these  birds  is  profitable  in  our  country  may  admit 
of  question;  the  quantity  of  peas,  beans,  and  grain,  which 
even  a small  flock  will  annually  consume,  is  enormous. 
What,  then,  must  be  the  consumption  of  flocks  of  many 
hundreds  ? 


The  megrims , or  epilepsy,  is  an  incurable  disorder,  in  which 
the  pigeon  moves  about  and  flutters  at  random,  with  its  head 
turned,  and  its  bill  resting  upon  its  back. 

If  the  birds  suffer  much  while  moulting , remove  them  to  a 


DISEASES. 


PIGEONS. 


— mo 

103 

warm  place,  mix  a good  quantity  of  hemp  seed  in  their  ordi- 
nary food,  and  tinge  their  water  with  saffron. 

When  the  birds  are  affected  with  the  wet  roup , give  them  a 
few  pepper  corns  once  in  three  or  four  days,  and  put  some 
green  rue  in  their  water. 

The  dry  roup  is  a husky  cough,  arising  from  a cold ; when 
three  or  four  cloves  of  garlic  should  be  given  to  the  birds  daily. 

When  your  pigeons  are  infested  with  insects , fumigate  their 
feathers  thoroughly  with  tobacco. 

The  canker  is  occasioned  by  the  cocks  pecking  each  other, 
which,  as  they  are  extremely  irritable,  they  often  do.  To  cure 
it,  rub  the  part  daily  with  a mixture  of  burnt  alum  and  honey. 

If  the  incrusted  flesh  round  the  eyes  of  “ carriers,”  “ Barbs,” 
or  “horsemen,”  be  injured  or  pecked,  bathe  it  with  salt  water; 
and  if,  in  some  days,  this  remedy  does  not  succeed,  another 
lotion  composed  of  three  drachms  and  a half  of  alum,  dissolved 
in  two  ounces  of  water  should  be  tried. 

When  “ pouters”  and  “croppers” gorge  themselves,  by  over- 
eating, after  long  fasting,  put  the  bird,  feet  downward,  into  a tight 
stocking,  smoothing  up  the  crop  so  that,  overloaded  as  it  is,  it 
may  be  kept  from  hanging  down ; then  hitch  up  the  stocking  on 
a nail,  and  keep  the  bird  a prisoner  until  its  food  is  digested, 
supplying  it  with  a small  quantity  of  water  occasionally. 
When  the  bird  is  taken  out  of  the  stocking,  it  should  be  put 
into  an  open  coop  or  basket,  and  fed  but  scantily  for  a while. 

For  lameness , or  swelled  halls  of  the  feet , whether  from  cold, 
cuts  with  glass,  or  any  accident,  the  most  effectual  application 
is  a small  quantity  of  Venice  turpentine  spread  on  a piece  of 
brown  paper. 


Synonymes. 


Tetrao  coturnix , 

Caille, 

Wachtel, 

C od  or  u i/, 

Quaglia, 

Quail,  Common  Quail, 


Of  Ornithologists. 
Of  the  French. 

Of  the  Germans. 

$ Of  the  Spaniards  and 
( Portuguese. 

Of  the  Italians. 

( Of  the  British  and 
{ Anglo-Americans. 


E SIDES  beauty  of  form  and  plumage,  the  song  of 
the  common  quail  of  the  Old  World  is  no  slight  re- 
commendation to  the  amateur.  In  the  breeding  sea- 
son, that  of  the  male  commences  by  repeating  softly,  tones 
resembling  terra , terra , followed  by  the  word  pieveroie , uttered 
in  a bold  tone,  with  the  neck  raised,  the  eyes  shut,  and  the  head 
inclined  on  one  side.  Those  that  repeat  the  last  syllables  ten 
or  twelve  times,  consecutively,  are  the  most  esteemed.  That  of 
the  female  only  consists  of  terra , terra,  pupu , pupa,  the  last  two 
syllables  being  those  by  which  the  male  and  the  female  attract 
one  another’s  attention;  when  alarmed  or  angry,  their  cry 
resembles  guillah!  but  at  other  times,  it  is  only  a muimur, 
a resembling  the  purring  of  a cat.  This  bird  never  sings  when 


THE  EUROPEAN  QUAIL. 




105  ^ 

left  to  run  about  in  a light  room,  except  during  the  night,  but 
continually  when  in  a darkened  cage. 

When  wild,  the  quail  is  found  throughout  the  eastern  conti- 
nent. It  is  a bird  of  passage,  arriving  in  Europe  in  May,  and 
taking  its  departure  at  the  end  of  September. 


THE  EUROPEAN  QUAIL. 


FOOD. 

In  a.  wild  state,  the  quail  feeds  on  wheat  and  other  corn, 
rape  seed,  millet,  hemp  seed,  and  the  like.  It  also  eats  green 
vegetables,  as  well  as  insects,  and  particularly  ants’  eggs. 

In  the  house,  it  is  fed  on  the  same  food,  adding  bread,  barley 
meal,  mixed  with  milk,  the  universal  paste,  and  occasionally 
salad  or  cabbage,  chopped  up  small,  and,  that  it  may  want 
nothing  to  keep  it  in  health,  plenty  of  river  sand  for  it  to  roll 
in  and  peck  up  grains,  which  assist  its  digestion;  but  this 
sand  must  be  damp,  for  if  dry,  it  will  not  touch  it.  It  drinks  a 
great  deal,  and  the  water,  contrary  to  the  opinion  of  some  k 
w — J 


THE  EUROPEAN  QUAIL. 


cm — 
f 106 


persons,  should  be  clear,  and  never  turbid.  It  moults  twice  in 
the  year,  once  in  autumn,  and  again  in  spring;  it  then  requires 
river  sand,  and  greater  attention  than  at  other  times. 


The  quail  breeds  very  late,  never  before  July.  Its  nest,  if  it 
can  be  called  so,  is  a hole  scratched  in  the  earth,  in  which  it 
lays  from  ten  to  fourteen  bluish-white  eggs,  with  large  brown 
spots.  These  are  hatched  after  three  weeks’  incubation.  The 
young  ones,  all  hairy,  follow  the  mother  the  moment  they  leave 
the  shell.  Their  feathers  grow  quickly,  for  in  the  autumn  they 
are  able  to  depart  with  her  to  the  southern  countries.  The 
males  are  so  ardent,  that  if  one  is  placed  in  a room  with  a 
female,  he  will  pursue  her  immediately  with  extraordinary 
eagerness,  tearing  off  her  feathers  if  she  resist  in  the  least;  he 
is  less  violent  if  he  has  been  in  the  same  room  with  her  during 
the  year.  The  female,  in  this  case,  lays  a great  many  eggs 
but  rarely  sits  on  them  ; yet  if  young  ones  are  brought  her 
from  the  fields,  she  eagerly  receives  them  under  her  wings, 
and  becomes  a very  affectionate  mother  to  them.  The  young 
must  be  fed  on  eggs,  boiled  hard  and  cut  small,  but  the  best 
way  is  to  take  the  mother  with  the  covey,  which  may  be  done 
with  a net.  She  watches  over  them  attentively,  and  they  are 
more  easily  reared.  During  the  first  year,  one  would  think 
that  all  in  the  covey  were  females,  the  males  resemble  them  so 
much,  particularly  before  the  brown  shows  itself  on  the  throat. 

The  adult  female,  however,  differs  very  sensibly  from  the 
male ; her  throat  is  white,  and  her  breast  paler,  and  spotted 
with  black,  like  that  of  the  throat. 


In  the  house,  if  allowed  to  range,  its  gentleness,  neatness,  and 
peculiar  motions  are  seen  to  advantage ; but  it  is  often  kept  in 
a cage  of  the  following  make : — 


BREEDING-. 


MANAGEMENT. 


A a 


<8® 


THE  EUROPEAN  QUAIL. 


107  V 


A small  box,  two  feet  long,  one  foot  deep,  and  four  high,  of  any 
shape  which  is  preferred  ; in  this  are  left  two  or  three  openings, 
one  for  drinking  at,  the  other  to  give  light;  besides  this  all  is 
dark ; the  bottom  is  a drawer,  which  should  be  covered  with 
sand,  and  have  a seed  drawer  at  one  end ; the  top  is  of  green 
cloth;  for  as  the  quail  often  springs  up  it  would  hurt  itself  were 
it  of  wood.  The  case  should  be  suspended  during  the  summer 
outside  the  window,  for  the  quail  sings  much  more  when  con- 
fined in  this  manner  than  if  allowed  to  range  the  room,  where 
there  are  many  things  to  call  off  its  attention  from  its  song. 


CAGES,  AND  SEEDS 


p®*- 

V 


BIRDS, 


The  Subscribers  take  this  method  of  informing  the  public  that  they  keep  constantly 
on  haud  and  for  sale,  from  November  to  May  of  each  year,  a CHOICE  COLLEC- 
TION OF  HEALTHY  YOUNG  BIRDS,  noted  for  the  excellence  of  their  song,  fine 
forms,  beautifully-marked  plumage,  and  other  good  qualities,  consisting  of  German 
and  French  Canaries,  and  other  European  Song  Birds,  the  prices  of  which  vary 
according  to  their  ages  and  qualities. 


The  prices  of  Canary  Birds  vary  from  $2  to  $10  each,  or  $-1  to  $15  per  pair. 


Linnets, 

Goldfinches, 

Bulfinches,  

Song  Thrushes, 

Nightingales, 

Black  Caps, 

European  Robins, 

European  Sky  Larks,  . . 
European  Wood  Larks, 
European  Blackbirds, . . 
Mocking  Birds, 


from  $2  to  $2.50  each. 

$2  to  $2.50  44 

$5  to  $20  44 

$6  to  $15  44 

$10  to  $20  44 

$5  to  $10  44 

$4  to  $8  44 

$3  to  $20  44 

$4  to  $10  44 

$4  to  $10  44 

$15  to  25  44 


Breeding  Cages, $1  to  $3  44 

Gallery  Cages $1  to  $5  44 

Rape  Seed,  Millet,  Canary  Seed,  Meal  Worms,  Utensils  for  Feeding,  Materials  for 
building  nests,  &c.,  &c.,  on  reasonable  terms. 


During  the  warmer  months  of  the  year,  we  visit  Europe  for  the  purpose  of  replen- 
ishing our  stock  and  making  arrangements  for  subsequent  importations. 

All  persons  interested  in  this  subject  are  respectfully  invited  to  give  us  a call. 


N.B.  For  change  of  place  of  business  after  the  1st  of  May,  each  year,  see  advertise- 
ment in  the  New-York  Sun. 

CHARLES  REICHE  AND  BROTHER, 

177  William  street,  New  York. 


AN 


ESSAY  ON  MANURES, 

SUBMITTED 

TO  THE  TRUSTEES 

OF  THE 

MASSACHUSETTS  SOCIETY 

FOR 

PROMOTING  AGRICULTURE, 


FOR  THEIR  PREMIUM. 


BY  SAMUEL  L.  DANA. 


Manures  are  the  riches  of  the  field. — Chaptai* 


i\  t m 0 o r k : 

PUBLISHED  BY  C.  M.  SAXTON,  152  FULTON  STREET 

ALSO,  STRINGER  & TOWNSEND,  H.  LONG  & BROTHER,  W.  F.  BURGESS, 
DEWITT  & DAVENPORT,  WILSON  & CO.,  DEXTER  & BROTHER. 
BOSTON  : REDDING  & CO.  PHILADELPHIA  : W.  B. 

ZIEBER,  LINDSAY  & BLAKI3TON. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


PAGta 


Section  I. 

Clearing  and  breaking  up,  and  making  compost, 

5 

Names  of  substances  found  in  plants, 

6 

Chemical  substances  defined, 

7 

Analysis  of  plants,  

10 

Mould,  

12 

Manures — their  action,  &c.,  .... 

13 

Section  II. 

Shovelling  over  the  compost  heap, 

16 

u 

III. 

Carting  out  and  spreading,  .... 

18 

a 

IV. 

Of  the  action  of  mould  in  cattle  dung, 

20 

a 

y. 

Of  the  action  of  the  salts  of  cattle  dung,  . 

23 

a 

VI. 

Of  night  soil,  hog  manure,  horse  and  sheep  dung, 

27 

a 

VII. 

Of  the  circumstances  which  affect  the  quality 

and  quantity  of  animal  dung, 

28 

The  quality  of  the  dung,.  .... 

32 

a 

VIII. 

Manures  consisting  of  salts,  .... 

36 

a 

IX. 

Of  the  causes  which  make  urine  better  or  worse 

more  or  less,  and  the  modes  of  preserving  it, 

39 

u 

X. 

Mineral  salts,  or  manures,  . 

45 

a 

XI. 

Of  artificial  nitre  beds,  ... 

47 

u 

XII. 

Ashes, 

49 

a 

XIII. 

Manures  composted  chiefly  of  mould, 

53 

ESSAY. 


SECTION  I. 


CLEARING  AND  BREAKING  XJF,  AND  MAKING  COMPOST. 

There  is  one  thing  settled  in  farming,  stable  manure 
never  fails.  It  always  tells.  There  are  no  two  ways 
about  it.  There  is  here  neither  theory,  nor  specula- 
tion, nor  doubt,  nor  misgiving.  11  Muck  it  well,  mas- 
ter, and  it  will  come  right,”  is  an  old  proverb.  It  is 
considered  a fact  so  well  established,  that  nobody 
thinks  of  disputing  it.  There  is  advantage  in  asking 
why  barnyard  manure  never  fails.  The  answer  is 
easy.  It  contains  all  11  1 1 ' 3d  for  their 


can  easily  tell  what  is  in  manure.  The  whole  doc- 
trine of  manures,  then,  falls  into  two  plain  principles, 
on  which  hang  all  the  law  and  the  “ profits”  of  agri- 
culture. 

1st.  Plants  contain  and  need  certain  substances 
which  are  essential  to  their  growth. 

2d.  Manure  contains  all  those  substances  which 
plants  want.  If,  then,  we  would  find  out  what  it  is 
which  manure  contains,  that  makes  plants  grow,  we 
must  first  find  out  what  a grown  plant  contains.  This 
cannot  be  done  without  some  little,  a very  little 
knowledge  of  chemistry.  Do  not  be  startled,  reader. 
I suppose  that  you  may  know  nothing  of  chemistry, 


growth.  If  we  know 


contain,  we 


6 


MANURES. 


no,  not  even  its  terms.  As  a very  sensible  man,  who 
wrote  letters  on  botany  to  a young  lady,  said,  to  en- 
courage his  pupil,  it  was  possible  to  be  a very  good 
botanist  without  knowing  one  plant  by  name,  so  is  it 
possible  to  become  a very  good  agricultural  chemist, 
without  knowing  little  more  than  the  chemical  names 
of  a very  few  substances.  You  know  nothing  of 
chemistry,  it  may  be,  and  as  little  of  law;  yet  you 
will  go  to  law,  and  learn  some  of  its  terms  by  a dear- 
bought  experience.  The  law  terms  are  harder  to 
learn  than  the  chemical  terms. 

NAMES  OF  SUBSTANCES  FOUND  IN  PLANTS. 

Now  I fear  that  some  persons,  who  have  followed 
me  thus  far,  will  shut  up  the  book.  It  is,  say  they, 
all  stuff,  book  farming,  and  beyond  us.  If  one  may 
not  understand  what  manure  is  without  this  learning, 
we  may  as  well  begin  where  our  fathers  ended,  and 
that  was  where  our  forefathers  began  ages  ago.  By  a 
little  law,  however,  picked  up  as  a juryman,  or  wit- 
ness, selectman,  town  clerk,  justice  of  the  peace,  yea, 
perhaps,  hearing  an  indictment  read,  men  do  come  to 
understand  what  a lawyer  means  when  he  talks.  So, 
too,  by  a little  chemical  talk,  a man  may  learn  what  a 
chemist  means  when  he  talks  of  oxygen,  hydrogen, 
nitrogen,  chlorine,  and  carbon  ; potash,  soda,  lime, 
(ah,  these  are  old  friends,  the  very  names  make  us 
feel  at  home  again,)  alumina,  magnesia,  iron,  manga- 
nese, and  silex,  sulphur,  and  phosphorus.  Here  is  a 
long  list.  Long  as  it  is,  perhaps  it  will  be  thought 
worth  learning,  when  you  are  told,  that  these  are  the 
names  of  all  the  substances  found  in  plants,  every 
substance  which  they  want.  Out  of  these  is  made 
every  plant.  Every  part  of  every  plant,  from  the 
hyssop  on  the  wall  to  the  mountain  cedar,  contains 
some  or  all  of  these.  Be  not  disheartened.  Look 
over,  reader,  the  list  again  carefully,  see  how  many 


A PRIZE  ESSAY. 


7 


are  old  names  of  things  which  you  know.  Of  the 
fifteen,  you  know  nearly  one  half  by  name  and  by 
nature.  These  are  potash,  soda,  lime,  magnesia,  iron, 
sulphur.  Perhaps  you  will  add,  that  you  know  car- 
bon is  coal,  or  rather  coal  carbon.  You  have  heard 
from  some  travelling  lecturer  at  your  town  Lyceum, 
that  oxygen  and  hydrogen  together  form  water  ; that 
oxygen  and  nitrogen  form  the  air  you  breathe  ; that 
nitrogen  and  hydrogen  form  ammonia,  or  sal  volatile, 
which  gives  the  sharp  smell  to  the  smelling  bottle. 
Besides,  the  thing  has  been  said  so  often  that  you 
must  have  heard  it,  that  chlorine,  the  substance  which 
bleaches  in  bleaching  salts,  united  to  soda,  makes 
common  salt ; or  if  chlorine  is  united  to  ammonia,  sal 
ammoniac  is  formed.  Now  by  changes  and  combina- 
tions among  these  fifteen  things,  nature  makes  every- 
thing we  find  in  plants.  Many  of  these  are  invisible 
as  is  the  air.  The  substance  called  chlorine  perhaps 
you  have  never  seen,  but  if  you  ever  smelt  it  you 
will  never  forget  it.  It  is  often  smelt  in  a piece  of 
bleached  cotton,  when  opened  in  the  shops.  It  gives 
the  smell  to  bleaching  powder  used  to  disinfect  the 
air,  during  cholera  and  other  diseases.  If  you  could 
see  it,  it  would  appear  merely  a faint  yellowish- 
green  air.  It  is  all-powerful  on  vegetation.  As  it 
forms  a part  of  common  salt,  say  half  of  its  weight, 
we  may  dismiss  the  further  consideration  of  it,  by 
saying,  that,  in  some  shape  or  other,  chlorine  is  uni- 
versally diffused  in  soil  and  plants. 


CHEMICAL  SUBSTANCES  DEFINED. 

The  list  above  may  be  divided  as  follows  : — First, 
the  airy  or  volatile ; secondly,  the  earths  and  metals ; 
thirdly,  the  alkalies ; fourthly,  the  inflammables.  Only 
the  third  and  fourth  divisions  require  to  be  explained 
or  defined.  The  substances  called  potash  and  soda 
are  termed  alkalies.  They  are  said  to  have  alkaline 


8 


MANURES. 


properties.  Touch  your  tongue  with  a bit  of  quick- 
lime : it  has  a hot,  burning,  bitter  taste.  These  are 
called  alkaline  properties.  Besides  these,  they  have 
the  power  of  combining  with  and  taking  the  sours  out 
of  all  sour  liquids  or  acids ; that  is,  the  acid  and  the 
alkali  neutralize  each  other.  This  word  alkali  is  of 
Arabic  origin ; its  very  name  shows  one  of  the  pro- 
perties of  alkalies.  Kali  is  the  Arabic  word  for  bitter, 
and  al  is  like  our  word  super : we  say  fine  and  super- 
fine ; so  kali  is  bitter ; alkali,  superlatively  bitter,  or 
truly,  alkali  means,  the  u dregs  of  bitterness.” 

I wish,  reader,  for  your  own  sake,  as  well  as  my 
own,  that  you  should  fix  in  your  mind  what  I have 
said  about  alkali  and  alkaline  properties.  Alkali  is  a 
general  term.  It  includes  all  those  substances  which 
have  an  action  like  the  ley  of  wood  ashes,  which  you 
use  for  soap  making.  If  this  ley  is  boiled  down  dry, 
you  know  it  forms  potash.  How  lime,  fresh  slacked, 
has  the  alkaline  properties  of  potash,  but  weaker,  and 
so  has  the  calcined  magnesia  of  the  shops,  but  in  less 
degree  than  lime.  Here  we  have  two  substances, 
earthy  in  their  look,  having  alkaline  properties.  They 
are  called,  therefore,  alkaline  earths.  But  what  we 
understand  chiefly  by  the  term  alkalies,  means  pot- 
ash, soda,  and  ammonia.  Potash  is  the  alkali  of  land 
plants ; soda  is  the  alkali  of  sea  plants ; and  ammonia 
is  the  alkali  of  animal  substances.  Potash  and  soda 
are  fixed  ; that  is,  not  easily  raised  in  vapor  by  fire. 
Ammonia  always  exists  as  vapor  unless  fixed  by 
something  else.  Hence  we  have  a distinction  among 
alkalies  which  is  easily  remembered.  This  distinction 
is  founded  on  the  source  from  which  they  are  pro- 
cured, and  upon  their  nature  when  heated.  Potash 
is  vegetable  alkali,  derived  from  land  plants  ; soda  is 
marine  alkali,  derived  from  sea  plants ; ammonia  is 
animal  alkali,  derived  from  animal  substances.  Pot- 
ash and  soda  are  fixed  alkalies  ; ammonia  is  a volatile 
alkali.  Potash  makes  soft  soap,  with  grease,  and  soda 


A PRIZE  ESSAY. 


9 


forms  hard  soap.  Ammonia  forms  neither  hard  nor 
soft ; it  makes,  with  oil,  a kind  of  ointment,  used  to 
rnb  a sore  throat  with,  under  the  name  of  volatile 
liniment.  But  though  there  be  these  three  alkalies, 
and  two  alkaline  earths,  I want  you  to  fix  in  your 
mind,  reader,  that  they  all  have  common  properties, 
called  alkaline,  and  which  will  enable  you  to  un- 
derstand their  action,  without  more  ado  about  their 
chemistry. 

The  inflammables,  or  our  fourth  division,  are  sul- 
phur and  phosphorus;  both  used  in  making  friction 
matches.  The  phosphorus  first  takes  fire,  by  rubbing, 
and  this  sets  the  sulphur  burning.  Now,  the  smoke 
arising  from  these  is  only  the  sulphur  and  phosphorus 
united  to  the  vital  part  of  the  common  air.  This 
compound  of  vital  air,  or  oxygen,  as  it  is  called,  and 
inflammables,  forms  acids,  called  sulphuric  and  phos- 
phoric acids.  So  if  you  burn  coal,  or  carbon,  it  is  well 
known  you  form  fixed  air,  or  carbonic  acid.  That  is, 
by  burning,  the  coal  or  carbon  unites  with  the  oxygen 
or  vital  part  of  common  air,  and  forms  carbonic  acid. 
The  heavy,  deadly  air,  which  arises  from  burning 
charcoal,  has  all  the  properties  of  an  acid.  And  now 
let  us  see  what  these  properties  are.  All  acids  unite 
or  combine  with  the  alkalies,  alkaline  earths,  and  the 
metals.  When  acids  and  alkalies  do  thus  unite,  they 
each  lose  their  distinguishing  properties.  They  form 
a new  substance,  called  a salt.  It  is  very  important 
you  should  fix  well  in  your  mind  this  definition  of  a 
salt.  You  are  not  to  confine  your  idea  of  a salt  to 
common  salt.  That  is  a capital  example  of  the  whole 
class.  It  is  soda,  an  alkali,  united  to  an  acid,  or 
chlorine ; or,  to  speak  in  the  terms  the  most  intelligi- 
ble, to  muriatic  acid.  So  saltpetre  is  a salt.  It  is 
potash  united  to  aqua-fortis.  Yet  in  saltpetre  you 
perceive  neither  potash  nor  aqua-fortis.  These  have 
united,  their  characters  are  neutralized  by  each  other. 
They  have  formed  a neutral  salt.  Our  list  of  sub- 
1* 


10 


MANURES. 


stances  found  in  plants  is  thus  reduced  from  things 
which  you  did  not  know,  to  things  which  you  do 
know ; and  so  we  have  saved  the  trouble  of  learning 
more  of  their  chemistry. 

We  have  reduced  the  airy  or  volatile  into  water, 
formed  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen ; or  volatile  alkali, 
formed  of  nitrogen  and  hydrogen ; or  into  acids,  as 
the  carbonic,  formed  of  oxygen  and  carbon — as  the 
sulphuric,  formed  of  oxygen  and  sulphur — as  the 
phosphoric,  formed  of  oxygen  and  phosphorus ; and 
having  thus  got  water  and  acids,  these  unite  with  all 
the  alkaline,  earthy,  and  metallic  bodies,  and  form 
salts.  To  give  you  new  examples  of  these,  I may 
mention  Glauber’s  salts  and  Epsom  salts.  Glauber’s 
salt  is  formed  of  soda  and  sulphuric  acid ; Epsom 
salts,  of  magnesia  and  sulphuric  acid ; alum,  of 
alumina,  or  clay  and  sulphuric  acid ; green  vitriol,  of 
iron  and  sulphuric  acid ; white  vitriol,  of  zinc  and 
sulphuric  acid ; plaster  of  paris,  of  lime  and  sulphuric 
acid ; bones,  of  lime  and  phosphoric  acid ; chalk  and 
limestone,  of  lime  and  carbonic  acid.  These  are  all 
examples  of  salts  ; that  is,  an  acid,  or  a substance  act- 
ing the  part  of  an  acid,  united  to  an  alkali,  metal,  or 
earth. 

ANALYSIS  OF  PLANTS. 

We  have  thus  gone  over,  in  a very  general  way, 
enough  of  chemistry  for  any  one  to  understand  the 
chemical  nature  of  manure.  You  see,  reader,  that 
with  common  attention,  bestowed  for  an  evening’s 
reading,  one  may  learn  these  chemical  terms  and  their 
meaning.  And  now,  having  learned  this  first  lesson, 
let  us  review  the  ground  gone  over,  and  fix,  once  and 
for  all,  these  first  principles  in  our  minds.  Let  us  do 
this,  by  a practical  application  of  the  knowledge  we 
have  gained.  Let  us  analyze  a plant.  Do  not  be 
startled  at  the  word.  To  analyze,  means  to  separate 
a compound  substance  into  the  several  substances 


A PRIZE  ESSAY. 


11 


which  form  it.  This  may  be  done  by  a very  particu- 
lar and  minute,  or  by  a more  general  division.  It 
may  be  done  for  our  present  purpose,  by  separating 
the  several  substances  of  a plant  into  classes  of  com- 
pounds. You  are  already  chemist  enough  to  under- 
take this  mode  of  analysis ; in  truth  you  have  already 
done  it,  again  and  again.  For  our  purpose,  the  an- 
cient chemists  had  a very  good  division  of  all  matter 
into  four  elements ; fire,  air,  earth,  and  water.  Now, 
by  fire  you  separate  plants  into  the  other  three  ele- 
ments. You  are,  reader,  though  perhaps  you  do  not 
know  it,  somewhat  of  a practical  chemist.  Whenever 
you  have  burned  a charcoal  pit,  what  did  you?  You 
separated  the  wood  into  air,  water,  and  earth. 

You  drove  off  by  heat  or  fire  the  airy  or  volatile 
parts  of  the  plant : you  left  its  carbon,  or  coal ; if  you 
had  burnt  this,  you  would  have  left  ashes.  Now  these 
ashes  are  the  earthy  parts  of  plants.  If  you  burn  a 
green  stick  of  wood,  you  drive  off  first  its  water  and 
volatile  parts,  which  form  soot.  You  burn  its  carbon, 
and  leave  its  ashes,  or  salts.  So  that  by  simply  burn- 
ing, you  reduce  the  substance  or  elements  of  plants  to 
water,  carbon,  salts.  All  plants  then,  without  excep- 
tion, contain  the  several  substances  in  our  list  above, 
as  water,  carbon,  and  salts.  To  apply  this  knowledge 
to  manure,  we  must  say  a word  on  the  form  in  which 
some  of  these,  which  we  call  the  elements  of  plants, 
exist  in  them.  The  sap  is  water ; it  holds  dissolved 
in  it  some  salts  of  the  plant.  This  sap,  or  juice,  forms 
a pretty  large  proportion  of  the  roots,  say  seventy-five 
to  eighty  parts  in  one  hundred,  of  potatoes,  turnips, 
beets,  &c.  This  may  be  called  the  water  of  vegeta- 
tion. If  we  dry  beet  root,  or  any  othei  plant,  we 
merely  drive  off  this  water  of  vegetation.  Now  what 
have  we  left  ? To  go  back  to  our  process  cf  analysis, 
let  us  char  the  dried  root.  We  drive  off  more  water 
and  volatile  parts.  This  water  did  not  exist,  as  such, 
in  the  plant.  It  existed  there  as  hydrogen  and  oxy- 


12 


MANURES. 


gen  gas.  Now  this  word  gas  is  a chemical  term,  and 
it  means  any  substance  in  vapor,  which  cannot  be 
condensed  into  a liquid  or  solid,  at  common  tempera^* 
tures.  Different  gases  may  unite,  and  so  become 
solids  or  liquids.  Steam  is  not  gas,  for  it  is  the  vapor 
of  water,  and  immediately  returns  to  the  state  of 
water,  below  212°.  Perfect  steam  is  invisible,  so  are 
most  gases.  The  air  we  breathe  is  composed  of  two 
gases,  oxygen  and  nitrogen.  We  do  not  see  them  ; 
we  cannot,  by  cooling  or  compression,  make  air  take 
other  shape  than  invisible  air.  This  is  the  general 
property  of  gas,  as  distinguishod  from  vapor  or  steam. 
Oxygen  and  hydrogen,  in  plants,  exist  in  just  the 
proportions  to  form  water,  but  we  do  not  know  that 
they  are  united  in  these  proportions.  We  have  com- 
pelled them  to  unite,  by  heating  the  substance  or 
root.  The  carbon  is  by  this  same  process  consumed, 
and,  you  know,  has  thus  formed  carbonic  acid.  Be- 
sides this,  a portion  of  the  carbon  unites  with  some  of 
the  hydrogen  of  the  plant.  This  forms  light,  inflam- 
mable air.  Now  you  may  collect  this  light,  inflam- 
mable air,  in  any  stagnant  water  wh^re  plants  are 
decaying.  Decay  gives  exactly  the  same  products  as 
are  formed  in  making  charcoal.  Decay  is  only  slow 
combustion,  or  burning;  no  matter  whether  we  char 
the  plant  or  leave  it  to  decay,  we  obtain  exactly  the 
same  products  as  we  did  by  our  analysis,  that  is, 
carbon  and  salts. 


MOULD. 

But  because  there  is  not  heat  enough,  we  leave  by 
decay  a portion  of  the  hydrogen  and  oxygen  still 
united  to  the  coal.  A slow  mouldering  fire  leaves  pro- 
ducts more  like  those  of  decay.  Decay  is  a slow, 
mouldering  fire ; hence  the  products  of  the  decay  of 
plants  are  very  aptly  termed  mould.  It  is  the  pro- 
duct of  a mouldering  fire;  that  is,  an  imperceptible 
union  of  the  oxygen  of  the  air  with  the  carbon  of  the 


A PRIZE  ESSAY. 


13 


plant.  A union  so  slow,  that  it  gives  out  neither  heat 
nor  light.  And  yet  it  is  in  its  results,  the  same  as  if 
fire  had  actually  been  seen  and  felt.  Mould  contains, 
then,  a part  of  the  carbon,  oxygen,  and  hydrogen,  or, 
if  you  like  the  terms  better,  mould  of  soil  consists  of 
the  water  and  coal  and  salts  of  the  plants.  Mould  is 
truly  manure.  If  the  mould  of  soil,  as  it  has  thus 
been  defined,  were  separated  from  the  earthy  portions 
of  soil,  it  would  deprive  that  soil  of  the  power  of 
growing  crops.  Here,  then,  we  come  to  a broad  dis- 
tinction between  soil  and  manure.  The  soil  is  the 
earth  on  which  plants  grow.  The  mould  is  the  ma- 
nure of  that  soil.  The  soil  is  the  earthy — the  mould, 
that  is,  the  carbon  and  salts,  together  with  the  ele- 
ments of  water,  are  the  vegetable  part  of  arable  land. 
But  though  the  earthy  part,  the  soil,  as  it  is  usually 
called,  acts  as  a support,  on  which  plants  grow,  it 
does  not  play  a merely  mechanical  part.  It  has  a 
distinct,  decided,  and  important  action  upon  the  ma- 
nure. This  action  is  chiefly  chemical;  and  the  fact 
that  soils  and  manures  do  mutually  affect  the  growing 
plant,  is  proved  by  the  circumstance,  that  the  first 
plants  which  grew  derived  their  salts  from  the  earth. 

MANURES— THEIR  ACTION,  ETC. 

But  this  chemical  action  of  soil  does  not  belong  to 
the  present  discussioh.  We  can  understand  what 
manures  are,  without  deciding  how  they  act.  We  can 
theorize  and  guess  about  the  how  of  their  action,  when 
we  have  learned  what  they  are.  That  is  chiefly  what 
the  farmer  wants  to  know.  He  wants  to  know  what 
manure  is,  and  what  is  likely  to  act  as  a manure.  To 
these  points,  we  shall  confine  our  present  remarks. 
Pointing  out  the  great  principles  applicable  to  all 
manures,  the  nature  of  soils,  and  the  manner  in  which 
they  affect  manures,  must  be  left  for  another  essay. 
The  vegetable  or  manure  part  of  soil  alone,  is  now  to 
be  considered.  Consider,  now,  reader,  the  great  re- 
sults to  which  our  analysis  has  led  us ; that  a slow, 


14 


MANURES. 


mouldering  fire  gives  us  the  same  products  as  are 
formed  by  decay ; that  this  is  only  a tlow,  mouldering 
fire,  and  that  mould,  its  product,  is  the  natural  manure 
of  plants.  It  follows,  that  whatever  substance  produces 
mould,  that  is,  water,  carbon,  and  salts,  may  be  used 
instead  cf  this  natural  manure.  Among  the  salts 
found  in  mould,  some  are  volatile,  and  are  easily  dis- 
solved by  water.  Others  are  fixed,  that  is,  not  evapo- 
rating easily,  or  not  at  all,  and  are  quite  insoluble  in 
water.  Now  the  first,  or  volatile  and  soluble,  first 
act  when  used  in  manure.  They  act  quick,  and  are 
quickly  done.  The  fixed  and  insoluble  act  slower, 
they  last  longer.  The  volatile  act  in  the  early  stages 
of  growth,  the  fixed  in  the  later  periods.  The  great 
difference  in  the  action  of  manures,  depends  almost 
entirely  upon  the  salts  which  they  contain.  These 
are  the  most  important  and  essential.  It  is  not  so 
much  the  vegetable  mould  of  manure  which  you  want, 
as  the  salts  which  it  contains.  This  is  a well-settled 
principle.  Land  which  has  undergone  the  skinning 
process,  old,  worn-out,  and  run-out  land,  still  contains 
a very  large  portion  of  vegetable  matter ; the  coal  or 
carbon  of  mould  without  its  salts.  Give  this  worn- 
out  land  salts,  and  you  may,  by  these  alone,  bring  it 
back  not  only  to  its  first  virgin  freshness,  but  you 
may  even  by  salts  alone  make  it  fairer  and  richer  than 
it  was  before  man  ever  cultivated  it. 

Too  much  stress  has  been  all  along  laid  upon  the 
kind  of  soil.  Go  now  to  “ Flob,”  in  West  Cambridge ; 
no  better  farms  or  farmers,  look  the  world  through. 
Ask  any  of  these  practical  men,  whether  the  sandy 
and  gravelly  soil  of  Old  Cambridge  Common,  or  even 
of  Seekonk  Plain,  can  be  n ade  to  bear  as  rich  crops 
as  their  land?  They  will  tell  you  yea.  If  your  land 
will  hold  manure,  muck  it  well  and  it  will  be  as  good. 
Now,  this  holding  of  manure  belongs  to  the  subject 
of  soils,  and  throwing  that  out  of  consideration,  it  is 
found  that  even  lands  which  do  not  hold  manure, 
which  have  been  worn  out  and  exhausted  by  cropping, 


A PRIZE  ESSAY. 


15 


hold  yet  a great  deal  of  insoluble  coal  of  mould. 
They  want  salts,  and  something  which  wil  make  this 
inert,  dead  vegetable  matter  of  the  soil  active.  The 
mould  is  active  in  proportion  as  it  is  more  or  less  dis- 
solved by  water.  Mould  consists  of  two  parts  ; one  is 
dissolved,  though  only  in  a slight  degree,  by  water ; 
the  other  is  not  dissolved  by  water.  Some  substances, 
however,  do  render  mould  very  easily  dissolved  by 
water.  Hence,  if  you  reflect  a moment  on  these  facts, 
it  will  be  seen  that  mould  itself,  being  valuable  in 
proportion  to  the  ease  with  which  water  dissolves  it, 
that  whatever  substance  so  enables  mould  to  dissolve, 
may  be  added  to  it,  and  thus  increase  its  value.  Now 
the  things  which  do  this  are  the  alkalies,  soda,  potash, 
and  ammonia.  These  principles  being  well  settled, 
we  may  enter  on  the  consideration  of  each  different 
manure.  They  will  be  valuable  in  proportion  to  the 
quantity  and  kind  of  salts  each  contains,  added  to  the 
power  they  may  have  of  producing  by  their  decay 
substances  which  make  their  mould  soluble.  Now 
this  last  property,  that  is,  the  property  of  producing 
a substance  which  makes  mould  soluble,  depends 
wholly  upon  the  nitrogen  of  the  manure.  This  nitro- 
gen, in  the  process  of  decay,  becomes  volatile  alkali 
or  ammonia.  The  word  ammonia  will  occur  so  often 
in  the  present  discussion,  that  we  should  endeavor  to 
fix  some  definite  idea  to  it.  You  need  not,  reader,  be 
acquainted  with  all  its  chemical  properties.  I suppose 
every  man  who  will  be  likely  to  read  these  remarks, 
has  smelled  ammonia.  It  has  been  already  said,  that 
it  gives  the  peculiar  pungent  sir  ell  to  the  common 
smelling  bottle. 

This  is  volatile  ammonia.  It  is  alwaj^s  formed 
when  animal  or  vegetable  bodies  decay. 

It  has  been  already  said,  and  is  now  repeated,  in 
order  that  it  may  never  be  forgotton,  that  ammonia  is 
formed  by*  the  union  of  hydrogen  and  nitrogen.  Hy- 
drogen and  nitrogen,  two  airs,  nitrogen  forming  four 
fifths  of  the  air  we  breathe ; let  that  be  borne  in  mind, 


16 


MANURES. 


and  without  going  into  the  chemistry  of  ammonia 
further,  or  the  mode  of  calculating  how  much  ammo- 
nia a pound  of  nitrogen  will  make,  it  may  be  laid 
down,  and  must  be  remembered,  too,  that  every  pound 
of  nitrogen  may  be  called  two  and  a half  pounds  of 
sal  volatile,  or  smelling  salts,  of  the  smelling  bottle. 
Two  and  a half  pounds  of  volatile  ammonia  formed 
from  one  pound  of  nitrogen.  If,  then,  we  can  deter- 
mine, as  chemistry  may,  how  much  nitrogen  exists  or 
forms  a part  of  manure,  two  and  a half  times  that  will 
be  the  ammonia  of  that  manure.  If  then  the  vegeta- 
ble part  of  manure  is,  as  we  have  said,  valuable  and 
active,  in  proportion  to  its  degree  of  being  dissolved 
by  water,  then,  as  ammonia  gives  it  this  easy  solu- 
bility, we  may  safely  say,  that  the  quantity  of  nitro- 
gen in  manure  is  the  measure  of  the  value  of  its 
vegetable  part.  One  thing  must  be  guarded  against, 
not  to  place  from  this  view  the  whole  of  the  value  of 
manure  upon  its  ammonia.  Eemember  that  manure 
consists  of  carbon,  water,  and  salts.  The  whole  are 
equally  essential  to  its  action.  There  is  no  eye,  nor 
ear,  nor  foot,  nor  hand  in  manure,  which  may  say  to 
the  other  members,  “ I have  no  need  of  thee.”  The 
whole  act  together ; but  it  is  not  to  be  doubted,  that 
ammonia  is  the  heart  of  manure,  and  keeps  up  the 
healthy  circulation  among  the  other  members. 


SECTION  II. 

SHOVELLING  OVER  THE  COIMPOST  HEAP. 

The  above  remarks  may  be  called  our  compost 
heap.  It  must  be  well  shovelled  over.  Yon  must, 
reader,  before  you  cart  it  out  and  spread  it,  under- 
stand well  what  this  compost  contains.  Now  just  let 


A PRIZE  ESSAY. 


17 


me  turn  over  a few  shovelfuls,  and  fork  out  the  main 
points  to  which  I wish  to  call  your  attention. 

1st.  That  all  plants  find  in  stable  manure  everything 
they  want. 

2d.  That  stable  manure  consists  of  water,  coal,  and 
salts. 

3d.  That  these,  water,  coal,  and  salts,  consist  in  all 
plants  of  certain  substances,  in  number  fifteen,  which 
are  called, 

1.  Oxygen,  2.  Hydrogen,  3.  Nitrogen,  4.  Carbon, 
5.  Sulphur,  6.  Phosphorus,  7.  Potash,  8.  Soda,  9.  Lime, 
10.  Magnesia,  11.  Alumina,  or  clay,  12.  Iron,  13. 
Manganese,  14.  Chlorine,  which  last,  as  we  have  said, 
forms  about  one  half  the  weight  of  common  salt,  15. 
Silex.  And  if  you  always  associate  with  the  word 
chlorine,  the  fertilizing  properties  of  common  salt,  you 
will,  perhaps,  have  as  good  an  idea  of  this  substance 
as  a farmer  need  have,  to  understand  the  action  of 
chlorine. 

4th.  These  fifteen  substances  may  be  divided  into 
four  classes. 

(1.)  The  airy  or  gases,  oxygen,  hydrogen,  nitrogen, 
and  chlorine. 

(2.)  The  earths  and  metals,  lime,  clay,  magnesia, 
iron,  manganese,  and  silex. 

(3.)  The  alkalies,  potash  and  soda. 

(4.)  The  combustibles,  carbon,  sulphur,  and  phos- 
phorus. 

You  may  be  surprised  that  I have  not  turned  up 
ammonia,  but  this  exists  in  plants  as  hydrogen  and 
nitrogen. 

5th.  The  term  salt  includes  a vast  variety  of  sub- 
stances, formed  of  alkalies,  earths,  and  metals,  com- 
bined with  acids.  Fix  well  the  meaning  of  this  term 
in  your  mind,  and  remember  the  distinction  pointed 
out,  that  some  salts  are  volatile,  and  act  quick  in 
manure,  and  others  are  fixed,  and  act  slower. 

6th.  When  plants  die  or  decay,  they  return  to  the 
earth  or  air  these  fifteen  substances,  i’hose  returned 


18 


MANUKKS, 


to  the  earth  form  mould,  which,  thus  composed  of 
carbon,  salts,  and  water,  is  natural  manure. 

7th.  Mould  consists  of  two  kinds,  one  of  which 
may  be,  and  the  other  cannot  be  dissolved  by  water. 
Alkalies  put  it  into  a state  to  be  dissolved,,  and  in  pro- 
portion as  it  is  dissolved,  it  becomes  valuable  as  a 
manure. 

8th.  If  then  manure  contains  only  waterr  carbon, 
and  salts,  any  substance  which  affords  similar  pro- 
ducts may  be  substituted  for  it.  Hence  we  come  to 
a division  of  manures  into  natural  and  artificial. 
The  consideration  of  these  is  the  carting  out  and 
spreading  of  our  compost.  And  we  shall  first  con- 
sider in  detail  the  natural  manures. 

That  is,  those  which  are  furnished  us  by  the  dung 
and  urine  of  animals,,  and  the  manure  or  mould  formed 
by  the  decay  of  animal  bodies  or  plants.  These  are 
truly  the  natural  manures,  consisting  of  water,  mould, 
and  salts.  This  is  all  that  is  found  in  cattle  dung. 
This  being  premised,  we  may  divide  manures,  reader, 
for  your  more  convenient  consideration,  not  by  their 
origin,  but  by  their  composition.  We  may  divide 
manures  into  these  three  classes : First,  those  consist- 
ing of  vegetable  or  animal  matter,  called  mould ; Se- 
condly, those  consisting  chiefly  of  salts;  Thirdly, 
those  consisting  of  a mixture  of  these  two  classes. 
And,  beginning  with  the  last  first,  we  will  now  proceed 
to  their  consideration. 


SECTION  III. 

CARTING  OUT  AND  SPREADING. 

The  general  chemical  information  set  forth  in  the 
preceding  sections  will  be  of  no  service  to  you,  reader, 
if  it  conducts  you  not  beyond  the  result  arrived  at  in 


A PxxlZE  ESSAY. 


19 


the  close  of  the  last  section,  that  cattle  dung  is  com- 
posed of  water,  mould,  and  salts. 

You  want  to  know  what  salts,  and  how  they  act. 
If  you  understand  this,  you  maybe  able  to  say  before- 
hand, whether  other  things,  supposing  their  nature 
understood,  can  take  the  place  of  the  mould  and  salts. 

The  mould,  then,  of  cattle  dung,  as  of  all  other 
mould,  contains  the  following  substances : — 

The  water  consists  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen 

The  mould  consists  of  carbon,  oxygen,  hydrogen, 
nitrogen,  and  ammonia. 

Thus  it  is  seen,  that  the  mould  contains  all  the  sub- 
stances found  in  the  first  class  into  which  the  elements 
of  plants  were  divided.  The  salts  contain  the  sulphur, 
phosphorus,  and  the  carbon  as  sulphuric,  phosphoric, 
and  carbonic  acids,  and  the  chlorine,  as  muriatic  acid, 
or  spirits  of  salt. 

The  acids,  formed  of  the  elements  of  the  fourth  class 
of  the  substances  entering  into  plants,  are  combined 
with  those  of  the  second  and  third  classes,  namely, 
the  potash,  soda,  lime,  clay,  magnesia,  iron,  and  man- 
ganese. Here,  then,  we  have  all  the  elements  of 
plants,  found  in  cattle  dung.  Let  us  detail  their 
several  proportions.  We  have  all  that  plants  need, 
distributed  in  cattle  dung,  as  follows  : — 


In  100  lbs.  of  clear  cattle  dung  are, 

Water, 

Mould,  composed  of  hay, 

Bile  and  slime,  . . . . 

Albumen,  a substance  like  the 
white  of  an  egg, 

Salts,  silica,  or  sand, 

Potash,  united  to  oil  of  vitriol,  form- 
ing a salt,  .... 
Potash,  united  to  acid  of  mould, 
Common  salt,  .... 
Bonedust,  or  phosphate  of  lime, 
Plaster  of  Paris,  . . . 


83.60 

14.00 

1.275 

0.175 

0.14 


0.05 

0.07 

0.08 

0.23 

0.12 


20 


MANURES. 


Chalk,  or  carbonate  of  lime,  . . 0.12 

Magnesia,  iron,  manganese,  clay, 

"united  to  the  several  acids  above,  0.14 


100.00 


SECTION  IY. 

OF  THE  ACTION  OF  MOULD  IN  CATTLE  DUKG. 

Here,  then,  we  have  cattle  dung  with  its  several 
ingredients  spread  out  before  us. 

W le  have  now  to  study  its  action.  We  heed  here 
consider  only  the  salts  and  mould.  The  water  is  only 
water,  and  has  no  other  action  than  water.  The 
mould  includes  the  hay,  for  that  has  by  chewing,  and 
the  action  of  the  beast’s  stomach,  lost  so  much  of  its 
character,  that,  mingled  with  the  slime  and  bile,  &c., 
it  more  rapidly  decays  than  fresh  hay  would,  placed 
in  similar  circumstances.  During  this  act  of  decay, 
as  you  have  already  learned,  the  volatile  parts  of  the 
mould  are  given  off*  in  part.  These  escape  as  in 
burning  wood,  as  water  or  steam,  carbonic  acid,  and 
ammonia.  In  consequence  of  this  slow  mouldering 
fire  or  decay,  the  manure  heats.  Here  then  we  have 
three  very  decided  and  important  actions  'produced 
by  the  vegetable  part  or  mould  of  cattle  dung.  First, 
carbonic  acid  is  given  off ; second,  ammonia  is  form- 
ed ; third,  heat  is  produced.  Let  us  now  consider 
each  of  these,  and  their  effects. 

Firstly,  the  great  action  of  the  carbonic  acid  is 
upon  the  soil,  its  earthy  parts.  It  has  the  same  action 
on  these,  that  air,  rain,  frost,  have;  it  divides  and 
reduces  them.  It  not  only  reduces  them  to  powder, 
but  it  extracts  from  the  earth  potash,  and  the  alkalies. 
This  is  a very  important  act,  and  shows  why  it  is 
necessary  that  decay,  or  fermentation,  should  take 
place  in  and  under  the  soil  among  sprouting  seeds 


N 


A PRIZE  ESSAY. 


21 


and  growing  roots,  in  order  that  they  may  obtain  from 
the  soil  the  salts  they  want. 

If  well-rotted  manure  contains  abundance  of  these 
salts,  ready  formed  in  its  mould,  then  there  will  be 
less  necessity  of  this  action  of  carbonic  acid.  But  here 
again  it  must  be  remembered,  that  this  abundance  of 
salts,  ready  formed  in  mould,  can  be  produced  only 
at  the  expense  of  great  loss  by  fermentation  of  real 
valuable  parts ; for, 

2d.  The  next  great  action  of  the  mould  of  cattle 
dung  is,  to  produce  or  form  ammonia.  This  plays  a 
threefold  part : its  first  action  is,  to  render  the  mould 
more  soluble ; this  action  it  possesses  in  common  with 
the  fixed  alkalies — potash  and  soda.  All  the  alkalies 
put  a large,  but  undefined  portion  of  mould,  into  a 
state  fit  to  become  food  for  plants.  The  second  action 
of  ammonia  is  this,  it  hastens  decay.  It  is  the  bel- 
lows, we  may  say,  kindling  the  slow  mouldering  fire. 
The  third  action  of  ammonia  is,  to  combine  with  any 
free  acids,  such  as  vinegar,  or  even  an  acid  formed  of 
mould  itself,  but  especially  with  aqua-fortis,  or  nitric 
acid,  which  is  always  produced  where  animal  or  vege- 
table matters  decay.  This  is  a highly  important  fact. 
The  result  of  this  action,  the  production  of  ammonia 
and  aqua-fortis,  during  the  formation  of  mould,  is, 
that  a kind  of  saltpetre  is  thereby  produced.  That  is, 
the  ammonia  and  aqua-fortis  unite,  and  form  a salt, 
with  properties  similar  to  saltpetre.  But  we  want  the 
first  and  second  action  of  ammonia  to  occur,  before 
the  third  takes  place.  Consider  now,  reader,  whether 
a more  beautiful  and  effectual  way  can  be  devised,  to 
hasten  decay,  and  render  mould  more  fit  for  nourish- 
ing plants,  than  this  which  nature  has  provided.  The 
ammonia  is  volatile.  It  remains,  not  like  potash  and 
soda,  where  it  is  put,  incapable  of  moving  unless  dis- 
solved by  water,  but  ammonia,  like  steam,  pervades 
every  part.  It  is  as  expansive  as  steam.  Heated  up 
by  the  slow  mouldering  fire  of  decay,  it  penetrates 
the  whole  mass  of  mould.  It  does  its  work  there. 


22 


MANURES. 


What  is  that  work  ? It  has  already  been  told.  But, 
if  it  finds  no  acid  to  combine  with,  it  then  unites  with 
the  mould  itself.  It  is  absorbed  by  it. 

The  mould  holds  it  fast ; it  stores  it  up  against  the 
time  when  growing  plants  may  need  it.  Now  it  is 
only  where  the  abundance  of  ammonia  produced  satis- 
fies these  actions  of  hastening  decay,  making  mould 
soluble,  and  filling  its  pores  without  combining  with 
it,  that  the  formation  of  saltpetre  takes  place.  So 
where  animal  matters,  which  are  the  great  source  of 
ammonia,  decay,  there  we  may  expect  all  these  ac- 
tions to  occur.  How  important,  then,  is  that  action 
of  mouldering,  which  produces  ammonia.  If,  reader, 
you  will  reflect  upon  the  consequences  of  this  action, 
you  will  at  once  see,  that  if  the  mould  is  in  too  small 
a quantity  to  retain  the  ammonia,  it  may  escape.  If 
by  a wasteful  exposure,  you  allow  your  mould  to  dissi- 
pate itself  in  air,  as  it  certainly  will,  you  not  only 
incur  the  loss  of  that  part  of  the  mould,  but  you  di- 
minish at  the  same  time  the  chance  of  keeping  the 
ammonia  which  has  been  formed.  No  doubt  all  cattle 
dung  exposed  to  air,  forms  more  ammonia  than  it  can 
retain.  Hence  the  necessity  and  the  season  of  forming 
composts  with  this  substance.  u Keep  what  you  have 
got  and  catch  what  you  can,”  must  never  be  lost  sight 
of  in  manure.  The  third  action  of  mould  is  the  pro- 
duction of  heat.  Little  need  be  said  upon  this.  That 
a slight  degree  of  heat  hastens  the  sprouting  of  seeds, 
you  well  know.  That  different  manures  produce 
different  degrees  of  heat,  that  some  are  hot,  some 
cold,  you  well  know,  and  adapt  your  seed  and  manure 
to  each  other.  The  degree  of  heat  depends  upon  the 
rapidity  with  which  decay  occurs.  And  this  is 
affected  by  the  quantity  of  ammonia  which  each  ma- 
nure can  afford.  The  great  point,  to  which  your 
attention  should  be  directed,  when  considering  the 
power  of  mouldering  to  produce  heat,  is,  that  it  shall 
not  go  so  far  as  to  burn  up  your  manure,  just  as  hay 
will  heat  and  take  fire. 


k PRIZE  ESSAY. 


23 


SECTION  Y. 

OF  THE  ACTION  OF  THE  SALTS  OF  CATTLE  DUNG. 

Here  it  is  we  find  ourselves  thrown  on  a sea  of 
opinions,  without  chart,  compass,  or  pilot,  if  we  trust 
to  the  conflicting  theories  which  have  been  set  up  for 
landmarks  and  lighthouses.  Let  us,  therefore,  reader, 
trust  to  ourselves,  aided  by  the  little  chemistry  we 
have  learned  from  the  preceding  remarks  about  the 
composition  of  salts. 

I have  endeavored  to  impress  on  your  memory, 
that  the  term  salt  is  very  comprehensive.  But  then, 
to  encourage  one,  it  is  also  to  be  remembered,  that 
salts  are  compounds  of  alkalies,  earths,  and  metals 
with  acids.  Now  the  earths,  alkalies,  metals,  may  be 
united  to  each  of  the  known  acids,  (and  their  name  is 
legion,)  yet  you  may  not,  by  this  change  of  acids, 
alter  the  nature  of  the  earth,  alkali,  or  metal.  That 
always  remains  the  same ; every  time  you  change  the 
acid,  you  alter  the  character  of  the  salt.  Thus  soda 
may  be  united  to  oil  of  vitriol  and  form  Glauber’s 
salt,  or  to  aqua-fortis  and  form  South  American  salt- 
petre, or  to  muriatic  acid  and  form  common  table  salt. 
The  soda  is  called  the  base,  or  basis,  of  this  salt : that 
is  always  soda;  you  do  not  change  its  character  by 
changing  the  acid.  To  give  another  example,  lime 
may  be  united  to  carbonic  acid  and  form  chalk,  or 
marble,  or  limestone,  or  it  may  be  united  to  oil  of 
vitriol  and  form  plaster  of  Paris,  or  to  phosphoric  acid 
and  form  bonedust.  Now,  in  each  case,  the  base  of 
the  salt,  that  is,  the  lime,  remains  unchanged;  but, 
changing  the  acid,  we  change  the  nature  of  the  salt, 
and  of  course  its  effects  will  be  different. 

Now  it  is  plain,  that  where  the  base  of  the  salt  re- 
mains the  same,  that  will  always  act  the  same,  but 


24 


MANURES, 


different  effects  >vill  be  produced  by  different  acids. 
Each  base  acts  always  one  way,  but  each  has  an  action 
similar  to  every  other.  Each  acid  acts  also  one  way, 
but  each  has  an  action  distinct  from  every  other ; im- 
press this  on  your  mind.  Reflect  upon  it  a moment, 
and  you  will  perceive  that  salts  produce  different 
effects,  according  to  the  nature  of  their  acid.  Now 
this  may  be  illustrated  thus:  You  take  every  day, 
probably  with  your  every  meal,  common  salt ; that 
is,  soda,  a base,  united  to  muriatic  acid.  Your  di- 
gestion and  health  are  all  the  better  for  it.  You  give 
your  cattle  a little  salt.  It  does  them  good.  Sup* 
pose  now  you  change  the  acid  of  that  salt,  leaving 
soda,  its  base,  in  the  same  quantity  you  daily  take. 
Instead  of  the  muriatic,  suppose  you  substitute  the 
nitric  acid,  or,  what  is  the  same  thing,  suppose  you 
use  saltpetre  from  Peru,  instead  of  common  salt.  You 
need  not  be  told,  that  you  would  poison  yourself  and 
your  cattle  by  so  doing.  You  can  drink,  I dare  say 
you  have,  cream  of  tartar  punch.  You  feel  the  better 
for  it.  It  is  refreshing,  cooling,  opening.  Now  cream 
of  tartar  is  a salt  of  potash;  it  is  potash  and  tartaric 
acid.  You  have  a fever.  Your  doctor  gives  you  a 
sweat  with  Silvius’s  salt ; that  is,  acetate  of  ammonia, 
a salt  composed  of  that  and  vinegar ; or  you  take, 
perhaps,  an  effervescing  draught,  formed  of  lemon 
juice  and  pearlashes.  All  does  you  good.  But  sup- 
pose now  you  change  these  cooling,  vegetable  acids 
for  a mineral  acid,  say  oil  of  vitriol.  You  may  not 
take  potash,  united  with  a dose  of  oil  of  vitriol  equiva- 
lent to  the  tartaric  acid  in  the  cream  of  tartar,  with- 
out serious  injury.  So  is  it,  reader,  in  farming,  the 
acids  of  some  salts  are  not  only  harmless,  but  benefi- 
cial to  plants  ; others  are  actual  poisons. 

In  the  first  case,  salts  help  to  nourish  plants,  as 
common  salt  helps  to  nourish  yourself;  in  other 
cases,  they  poison  plants,  just  as  they  would  impair 
your  constitution,  perhaps  kill  you.  But  it  is  to  be 
remembered,  as  in  our  own  case,  even  those  that 


A PRIZE  ESSAY. 


25 


poison,  in  a small  dose  become  medicines,  so,  in 
plants,  a small  dose  is  not  only  good,  but  truly  essen- 
tial. Now  if  we  divide  the  acids  into  two  classes,  the 
nourishers  and  the  poisoners,  such  will  also  be  the 
nature  of  the  salts.  When  we  therefore  attempt  such 
a general  division  of  the  salts,  it  may  be  said  that  all 
the  acids  derived  from  the  vegetable  kingdom  are 
harmless ; so  are  the  acids  called  mineral,  yet  whose 
components  are,  in  part,  like  those  of  the  vegetable 
acids ; for  instance,  aqua-fortis,  or  nitric  acid.  But 
the  true  mineral  acids  are  poisonous ; such  are  oil  of 
vitriol  and  spirits  of  salt.  One  thing  is  here  to  be 
borne  in  mind.  It  must  never  be  out  of  sight,  in  try- 
ing to  understand  how  salts  make  plants  grow.  You 
cast  your  salt  upon  the  ground  ; it  lies  there  ; no  action 
occurs.  It  rains ; your  salt  is  dissolved  and  disap- 
pears ; it  seems  to  do  no  good.  Cast  your  salt  now 
among  sprouting  seeds  and  growing  roots ; here  is  life. 
Well  now,  life  is  just  as  much  a power  or  force  as 
electricity  is.  It  exerts  its  force,  no  matter  how ; that 
is  quite  another  consideration.  I say,  life  exerts  its 
force  here  to  separate  the  acid  and  the  base  of  a salt, 
just  like  a chemical  force.  We  can  and  do  separate 
the  components  of  salts  by  other  substances  ; nay,  we 
do  it  by  electricity  alone. 

Now  this  is  all  which  it  is . necessary  for  you  to 
know,  and  to  understand  about  this  action  of  plants 
upon  salts;  it  does  disunite  the  components  of  the 
salts.  What  is  the  consequence?  The  alkali,  earth, 
and  metal  act  as  such,  the  same  as  if  no  acid  was 
present.  The  acid  also  acts  by  itself : if  it  is  a nour- 
ishes it  helps  the  plant ; if  it  is  a poisoner,  it  hurts  it. 
It  produces  either  a healthy,  green  crop,  the  effect  of 
alkali,  or  a stunted,  yellow,  sickly  plant,  the  effect  of 
acids.  Now  neutralize  this  acid,  kill  it.  You  see 
/our  crops  start  into  luxuriance,  and  reap  where  you 
have  strewed.  So  much  for  illustration.  Let  us  now 
apply  ihis  view  of  the  action  of  salts  to  those  con- 
tained in  cattle  dung.  In  the  first  place,  we  have 
2 


26 


MANURES. 


salts  of  potash,  of  soda,  of  lime ; these  are  the  most 
abundant  and  active.  Then  we  have  salts  of  iron, 
manganese,  of  clay,  and  magnesia.  These  last,  exist- 
ing in  small  proportion,  may  be  thrown  out  of  the 
account,  bearing  in  mind,  however,  that,  though  we 
set  these  aside,  a plant  does  not ; they  enter  equally 
with  the  others  into  its  composition. 

Let  us  begin  with  the  salts  of  potash.  It  is  found 
combined  in  cattle  dung,  first,  with  a vegetable  acid, 
the  acid  of  mould.  It  is  a nourisher  of  plants. 
Secondly,  with  sulphuric  acid,  or  the  acid  of  sulphur, 
called  oil  of  vitriol.  This  is  one  of  the  poisoners, 
existing  only  in  small  proportion  in  cow  dung;  it  min- 
isters to  the  wants  of  a healthy  plant.  The  same  is 
true  of  the  common  salt,  or  the  muriate  of  soda  of 
dung.  If  it  existed  in  larger  quantities,  it  would 
poison  the  plants  to  which  it  might  be  applied. 

The  next  salts  are  those  of  lime,  phosphate  and 
sulphate  of  lime,  or  lime  united  to  sulphuric  and  phos- 
phoric acid,  forming  plaster  and  bonedust.  The  acids 
here,  if  abundant,  would  have  a decided  bad  influence, 
they  are  poisoners ; but  the  carbonic  acid,  in  the  car- 
bonate of  lime,  is  a nourisher.  Now,  from  the  small 
quantity  in  which  these  all  exist  in  cattle  dung,  they 
act  only  beneficially.  But  if  you  apply  a great  excess, 
even  of  cattle  dung,  you  may  be  sure  of  an  unfavor- 
able result.  It  will  be  produced  by  the  acids  of  those 
salts  which  we  have  called  poisonous. 

To  continue  our  remarks  on  the  acids  of  salts  of 
dung,  it  is  to  be  observed,  that  they  act  also  upon  the 
soil.  They  decompose  that.  That  is,  they  extract 
from  the  soil  alkalies,  or  other  substances,  like  those 
in  the  original  salt.  Now  though  applied,  as  they 
must  be,  in  very  small  doses  in  cattle  dung,  yet,  be- 
cause of  their  decomposing  action  on  soil,  they 
continually  renew  themselves,  they  last  till  all  their 
acid  is  taken  up  to  supply  the  wants  of  growing 
plants, 

Let  us  now,  reader,  if  you  understand  how  the 


A PRIZE  ESSAY. 


27 


acids  of  the  salts  of  dung  act,  turn  to  the  bases  or  the 
alkalies  and  metals  and  earths  of  these  salts.  What 
is  their  action  ? What  purpose  do  they  serve  in  dung 
applied  as  manure  ? First,  they  enter  into  and  form 
a part  of  the  living  plant,  they  form  a part  of  its 
necessary  food,  as  much  as  do  the  constituents  of 
mould.  Secondly,  when  these  alkalies  and  metallic 
bases  are  let  loose,  by  the  disuniting  power  of  a 
growing  plant,  then  they  act  as  alkalies  upon  mould. 
They  hasten  decay,  render  mould  more  soluble,  fit  it 
to  become  food  for  plants.  This  account  of  the  action 
of  mould  and  salts  in  cattle  dung  may  appear  to  you, 
reader,  long  and  hard  to  be  understood.  I do  request 
you  not  to  pass  it  over  on  that  account.  A patient 
reading,  perhaps  some  may  require  two  or  more  read- 
ings, will  put  you  in  possession  of  all  you  need  know, 
to  understand  the  why  and  the  wherefore  of  the  action 
of  mould  and  salts  of  whatever  manure  may  be  used. 
What  has  been  said  of  the  action  of  mould  and  salts 
in  cattle  dung,  is  equally  applicable  to  all  manures. 
If,  then,  you  bend  your  bones  to  this  subject,  and 
master  it,  your  labor  of  understanding  the  action  of 
other  manures  will  be  reduced  to  the  mere  statement 
of  the  several  substances  which  they  may  contain. 
We  therefore  proceed  to  point  out  other  manures, 
composed  of  the  droppings  of  animals. 


SECTION  YI. 

OF  NIG-HT  SOIL,  HOG-  MANURE,  HORSE  AND  SHEEP  DUNG-. 

These  have  not  all  been  analyzed  with  the  same 
degree  of  care  and  as  often  as  has  cattle  dung ; some, 
as,  for  instance,  night  soil,  have  been  examined  thor- 
oughly but  once.  Now  it  is  not  quite  fair  to  base 
our  reasoning  upon  these  single  analyses,  and  say  that 


28 


MANURES. 


this  or  that  manure  contains  this  or  that  salt  in  greater 
or  less  quantity  than  another. 

The  quantity  and  kind  of  salts  are  materially  af- 
fected by  several  circumstances,  which  will  be  con- 
sidered in  the  next  section.  An  analysis,  made  when 
the  animal  is  fed  and  worked  one  way,  will  vary  from 
the  result  which  would  be  obtained  when  the  circum- 
stances are  varied.  It  is,  therefore,  quite  useless,  in 
the  general  consideration  of  the  composition  of  ma- 
nures, to  enter  upon  the  details  of  each.  General 
results,  general  expressions  of  facts,  are  sufficient  for 
understanding  the  nature  of  animal  droppings.  It  is 
well  ascertained,  however,  that  all  these  droppings  of 
various  animals  contain  essentially  the  same  salts  as 
does  cattle  dung.  They  all  contain  portions  of  each 
of  the  substances  which  form  plants.  It  will  be 
enough  for  the  purpose  of  this  essay,  to  present  to 
your  eye,  reader,  a table,  showing  the  proportions  of 
water,  mould,  and  salts,  which  the  dung  of  yourself 
and  your  stock  presents. 


Night  soil  and  hog  manure, 

Water. 

75.3 

Mould. 

23.5 

Salts. 

1.20 

Horse  dung, 

71.2 

27.0 

0.96 

Sheep  dung,  . 

67.9 

22.5 

3.06 

SECTION 

VII. 

OF  THE  CIRCUMSTANCES  WHICH  AFFECT  THE  QUALITY  AND 
QUANTITY  OF  ANIMAL  DUNO. 

That  we  may  reduce  to  some  general  principle, 
easily  understood  and  easily  remembered,  the  facts 
scattered  up  and  down,  among  the  mass  of  writers 
and  observers,  about  the  different  quality  of  manure 
afforded  by  different  animals,  or  the  same  animals  at 
different  times,  let  me,  reader,  request  your  company 


A PRIZE  ESSAY. 


29 


while  I walk  into  a new  department  of  your  chemistry. 
You  may  not  understand  the  reasons  of  this  difference 
in  manures — why,  for  instance,  fattening  cattle  give 
stronger  manure  than  working  oxen — without  going  a 
little  into  the  mode  how  animals  are  nourished.  The 
whole  may  be  stated  in  plain  terms  thus : All  food 
serves  two  purposes.  The  first  is  to  keep  up  the  ani- 
mal heat,  and  this  part  of  food  disappears  in  breathing 
or  in  forming  fat ; that  is,  after  serving  its  purpose  in 
the  animal  body,  it  goes  off  in  the  breath  or  sweat,  or 
it  forms  fat.  It  is  so  essential  to  the  action  of  breath- 
ing, that  we  will  term  it  food  for  breathing,  or  the 
breathers.  The  second  purpose  answered  by  food  is, 
to  build  up,  sustain,  and  renew  the  waste  of  the  body. 

Now  all  this  is  done  from  the  blood.  To  form 
blood,  animals  must  be  supplied  with  its  materials 
ready  formed.  They  are  ready  formed  in  plants; 
and  animals  never  do  form  the  materials  for  making 
blood.  We  may,  therefore,  term  this  kind  of  food  the 
blood  formers.  We  have,  then,  two  classes  of  food; 
the  breathers  and  the  fat  formers,  and  the  blood 
formers.  If  we  look  to  the  nature  of  these  different 
classes,  we  find  that  sugar,  starch,  and  gum  are 
breathers.  Now  there  are  three  principles  found  in 
plants,  exactly  and  identically  the  same  in  chemical 
composition  with  white  of  egg,  flesh,  and  curd  of 
milk.  Now  these  three  principles,  exactly  alike, 
whether  derived  from  animals  or  from  plants,  are  the 
only  blood  formers.  I shall  not,  reader,  tax  your  at- 
tention further  upon  this  subject,  than  to  say  and  to 
beg  you  to  remember  these  important  facts : First, 
all  food  for  breathing  and  forming  fat  contains  only 
these  three  elements,  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  carbon. 
Secondly,  all  food  for  forming  flesh  and  blood,  in  ad- 
dition to  these,  contains  nitrogen. 

This  is  the  gist  of  the  whole  matter,  so  far  as  relates 
to  manure.  Bear  in  mind,  as  you  go  on  with  me, 
reader,  this  fact,  that  of  all  the  food  animals  take,  that 
alone  which  can  form  flesh  and  blood  contains  nitro- 


30 


MANURES. 


gen.  The  door  is  now  open  for  explaining  why  age, 
sex,  kind  of  employment,  difference  of  food,  difference 
of  animal,  can  and  do  produce  a marked  difference  in 
the  value  of  different  manures.  And  first,  let  us  con- 
sider how  the  quantity  is  affected ; this  depends  on 
the  kind  of  food.  The  analysis  of  cattle  dung  which 
has  been  given  is  that  of  cows  fed  on  hay,  that  is, 
herd’s  grass,  red  top,  &c.,  or  what  is  usually  termed 
English  hay,  potatoes,  and  water.  The  cattle  kept  up 
the  year  round;  an  animal,  so  treated,  consumed  in 
seven  days, 

Water, 611  lbs 

Potatoes,  ....  87  “ 

Hay, 167  “ 

During  this  time,  she  dropped  clear  dung  599  lbs., 
or  very  nearly  a bushel  of  dung  a day.  Every  attem 
tion  was  here  paid  to  accuracy  of  measurement  and 
weight.  The  annual  amount  of  dung  from  one  cow 
exceeds  by  this  account  that  which  is  usually  assigned. 
But,  as  it  is  a matter  of  some  importance  for  the 
farmer  to  estimate  what  the  produce  of  his  stock  may 
be  in  dung,  the  following  statement,  containing  the 
results  of  a large  establishment,  will  probably  give 
that  average. 

At  this  establishment,  the  cows  were  kept  up  the 
year  round  for  their  dung.  It  was  collected  for  use 
free  from  litter,  and  measured  daily  into  large  tubs  of 
known  capacity.  The  average  number  of  cows  kept 
was  fifty -four  for  nine  and  a half  years.  During  that 
time,  they  consumed  of  beets,  meal,  and  pumpkins, 
brewery  grains,  cornstalks,  turnips,  potatoes,  carrots, 
and  cabbages,  942,436  lbs.,  giving  an  average  of  green 
fodder,  for  each  cow  per  year,  1,837  lbs.  Average 
consumption  of  hay  for  each  cow  per  annum,  8,164 
lbs.  The  total  dung  for  nine  and  a half  years  was 
120,520  bushels,  or  per  cow  per  annum,  235  bushels. 
This  gives  a daily  consumption  of  green  food,  5 lbs. 


A PRIZE  ESSAY.  81 

and  22  lbs.  of  hay  per  cow,  and  two  and  a half  pecks 
of  dung  per  day,  or  about  56  lbs.  per  cow. 

But  according  to  some  experiments,  made  to  deter- 
mine how  much  the  quality  of  the  food  affected  the 
quantity  of  dung,  it  appears  that  the  solid  and  fluid 
excrements,  partially  dried,  were,  compared  with  the 
food,  as  follows : — 


Cattle. 

lbs. 

Sheep 

lbs. 

Horses. 

lbs. 

100  lbs.  of  rye  straw  gave  dung,  43 

40 

42 

u u 

hay,  “ “ 

44 

42 

45 

u u 

potatoes,  - “ “ 

14 

13 

a u 

mangel- wurtzel,  11 

6 

a u 

green  clover,  “ 

n 

SI- 

u u 

oats,  “ “ 

49 

51 

u u 

rye,  11  11 

53 

My  own  experiments  on  this 

subject  gave  for  100 

lbs.  of  hay  and  potatoes  as  above,  estimating  both  as 
dry,  or  free  from  water  of  vegetation,  82.9  lbs.  dung, 
and  this  estimated  as  dry  is  reduced  to  5.6  lbs.,  or  26 
lbs.  of  dry  food  gave  14  lbs.  of  dry  dung.  But  as  a 
general  fact,  we  may  say,  that  well-cured  hay  and 
the  grains  give  one  half  of  their  weight  of  dung  and 
urine ; potatoes,  roots,  and  green  grass,  about  one 
tenth.  It  will  be  easily  understood  why  the  quality 
of  food  should  affect  the  quantity  of  dung.  The  more 
watery,  the  less  in  bulk  is  voided,  because  there  is 
actually  less  substance  taken.  And  as  the  animal  re- 
quires this  to  form  his  flesh,  and  blood,  and  fat,  and  to 
keep  up  his  breathing,  so  will  he  exhaust  more  com- 
pletely his  food.  More  going  to  support  him,  less  is 
returned  by  the  ordinary  channels.  So  when  much 
vegetable  fibre  exists,  as  in  chopped  straw  and  hay, 
then,  as  it  goes  but  little  way  toward  supporting 
breathing  or  forming  blood,  a greater  bulk  is  rejected. 
In  grains,  on  the  contrary,  which  afford  much  of  all 
that  the  animal  requires,  less  is  extracted  and  more 


82 


MANURES. 


voided.  These  circumstances  are  intimately  connected 
with 


THE  QUALITY  OF  THE  DUNG-. 

It  is  affected,  first,  by  the  season ; second,  by  the 
age;  third,  by  the  sex;  fourth,  by  the  condition  ; fifth, 
by  the  mode  of  employment ; sixth,  by  the  nature  of 
the  beast ; seventh,  the  kind  of  food. 

1st.  The  season.  It  is,  because  digestion  is  worse  in 
summer  than  in  winter,  a general  fact,  that  summer 
manure  is  best.  And  where  cattle  are  summer  soiled, 
it  is  said  the  manure  is  worth  double  that  from  stall- 
fed  winter  cattle.  I do  not  think  much  is  to  be  attri- 
buted to  the  worse  digestion  in  summer ; but  the  cause 
of  this  great  difference  in  value  is  to  be  found  in  the 
fact,  that  soiled  cattle  generally  get  a large  proportion 
of  blood-forming  food. 

The  wear  and  tear  of  their  flesh  is  little,  and  hence, 
requiring  little  of  their  food  to  keep  up  their  flesh,  a 
greater  portion  goes  off  in  dung,  which  thus  becomes 
rich  in  ammonia.  The  green  plants,  rich  in  nitrogen, 
afford  abundance  for  milk,  which,  being  rich  in  all 
the  elements  of  cream,  should  afford  large  returns  of 
butter. 

2d.  Age.  From  the  fact,  that  young  and  growing 
animals  require  not  only  food  to  form  flesh  and  blood 
to  repair  the  incessant  waste  and  change  taking  place 
in  their  bodies,  as  in  older  animals,  but  also  a farther 
supply  to  increase  the  bulk  of  their  frame,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  their  food  will  be  more  completely  exhausted 
of  all  its  principles,  and  that  also  less  will  "be  returned 
as  dung.  All  experience  confirms  this  reasoning,  and 
decides  that  the  manure  of  young  animals  is  ever  the 
weakest  and  poorest. 

3d.  The  sex.  This  is  one  of  the  most  powerful  of 
the  causes  which  affect  the  strength  of  dung.  From 


A PRIZE  ESSAY. 


33 


the  remarks  which  have  been  already  made,  and 
which  I trust,  reader,  are  now  fresh  in  your  memory, 
of  the  important  part  acted  by  nitrogen  in  dung,  it 
must  be  plain  why  sex  should  exercise  such  influence. 

Firstly,  in  all  food,  as  we  have  explained,  that  only 
which  contains  nitrogen  can  form  flesh  and  blood,  or 
substances  of  similar  constitution ; that  is,  requiring  a 
larger  proportion  of  nitrogen,  as  milk.  Hence,  an 
animal  with  young,  that  is,  a cow  before  calving,  re- 
quires not  only  materials  for  its  own  repair,  but  to 
build  up  and  perfect  its  young.  Hence  the  food  will 
be  most  completely  exhausted  of  its  nitrogen,  and 
consequently  the  dung  become  proportionably  weaker. 

Secondly,  the  young  having  been  formed,  then  milk 
is  required  for  its  sustenance.  Milk  contains  a large 
proportion  of  nitrogenous  or  blood-forming  elements, 
and  so  the  cause  which  originally  made  the  dung 
weak,  continues  to  operate  during  all  the  time  the 
animal  is  in  milk.  Sex,  then,  it  is  evident,  affects 
materially  the  quality  of  the  dung. 

4th.  The  condition.  If  the  animal  is  in  good  condi- 
tion, and  full  grown,  it  requires  only  food  enough  to 
supply  materials  to  renew  its  waste. 

Hence  the  food,  supposing  that  always  in  sufficient 
quantity,  is  less  exhausted  of  its  elements,  than  when 
the  animal  is  in  poor  condition.  In  the  last  case,  not 
only  waste,  but  new  materials  must  be  supplied.  If 
the  animal  is  improving  in  flesh,  (and  here,  reader,  I 
would  have  you  bear  in  mind  the  distinction  between 
flesh  and  fat,)  if  the  animal  is  improving  in  flesh,  then 
the  manure  is  always  less  strong  than  when  he  is 
gaining  fat.  There  is  no  manure  so  strong  as  that  of 
fattening  animals.  An  animal  stall-fed,  kept  in  proper 
warmth,  requires  but  little  of  his  breathing  food  to 
keep  up  his  heat.  All  the  starch,  gum,  sugar,  &c.,  go 
to  form  fat.  Having  little  use  for  his  muscles  or  flesh, 
that  suffers  little  waste,  and  the  nitrogen,  which 
should  go  to  form  flesh,  is  voided  in  du:  ;g.  If  it  is  a 


84 


MANURES. 


she,  no  milk  is  given  during  this  period,  for  a cow,  in 
milk,  fats  not. 

The  dung,  then,  of  fattening  animals  contains  more 
of  all  the  elements  of  food  for  plants,  than  at  any 
other  period,  and  is  peculiarly  rich  in  nitrogen.  I 
trust,  reader,  it  is  not  so  long  since  you  have  met  the 
word  ammonia,  that  you  have  forgotten  that  its  source 
and  origin  are  due  to  this  nitrogen.  Now,  the  source 
of  this  nitrogen  is  in  the  food,  and  as,  during  fatten- 
ing, grain  is  supplied  for  its  starch,  &c.,  to  make  fat, 
and  very  little  waste  of  the  body  taking  place,  the 
extra  nitrogen  of  the  blood-forming  materials  of  grain 
is  nearly  all  voided  in  dung. 

5th.  The  mode  of  employment.  Your  working 
beasts  suffer  great  wear  and  tear  of  flesh  and  blood, 
bone  and  muscle,  thews  and  sinews.  Plence,  their 
daily  food  supplies  only  this  daily  waste ; the  food  is 
very  thoroughly  exhausted,  and  of  course,  the  dung 
is  weak.  It  derives  its  chief  value  from  the  excre- 
tions of  those  parts  of  the  body  which  are  voided  as 
waste  materials  among  the  excrements.  There  is  a 
distinction  to  be  noted  here : excretions  are  the  worn- 
out  flesh  and  blood  elements,  excrements  the  undi- 
gested and  unused  food ; dung  includes  both  excre- 
tions and  excrements.  Now,  the  chief  value  of  the 
dung  of  working  cattle  depends  upon  the  excretions. 

6th.  The  nature  of  the  beast.  If  his  coat  is  wool, 
he  requires  more  sulphur  and  phosphorus,  the  natural 
yolk,  or  sweat  of  his  wool,  more  lime  and  ammonia 
than  does  the  hairy-coated  animal.  Hence,  sheep  pro- 
duce manure  less  rich  in  many  of  the  elements  of 
plants  than  cattle ; but  as  at  the  same  time  it  contains 
a larger  portion  of  nitrogen,  and  is  very  finely  chewed, 
it  runs  quicker  into  fermentation.  It  is  a hotter  ma- 
nure, quick  to  eat,  quick  to  work,  and  is  soon  done. 

7th.  The  kind  of  food.  We  have  already  spoken 
of  this  as  affecting  the  quantity  of  dung.  Its  effects 
are  no  less  marked  on  its  quality.  Now,  all  that  re- 


quires  to  be  said  on  this  subject,  is  to  remind  you, 
reader,  of  the  two  divisions  of  food,  the  fat  formers, 
and  the  flesh  and  blood  formers.  It  must  be  evidentp- 
that  the  more  of  this  last  the  food  contains,  that  is,,  the 
more  nitrogenous  is  the  food,  the  richer  the"tfeBagv 
Hence,  grains  of  all  sorts,  peas,  beans,  &c.,  will  always 
give  a richer  dung  than  fruits,  as  apples,  &c.  The 
more  nitrogenous  the  hay,  the  richer  the  dung. 
Meadow  cat-tail  and  rye  grass  are  nearly  six  times 
stronger  in  ammonia  than  oat  straw.  Red  clover  is 
twice  as  rich  in  nitrogen  as  herd’s  grass ; wheat,  bar- 
ley, and  rye  straw,  green  carrots,  and  potatoes  con- 
tain only  about  one  third  to  one  fifth  the  ammonia  of 
herd’s  grass,  and  turnips  only  about  one  sixth.  The 
quantity  of  ammonia  contained  in  these  different 
grasses  and  straws,  shows  at  once  the  effect  they  must 
have  in  the  compost  heap.  The  kind  of  litter  must 
have  no  small  effect  upon  the  value  of  manure.  And 
while  we  are  upon  this  subject,  it  may  not  be  out  of 
place  to  mention,  that  the  kind  of  a green  crop,  turned 
in,  materially  affects  the  value  of  the  process.  While 
the  straws  of  the  grain-bearing  plants  afford,  for  every 
ton  of  green  crop  turned  in,  about  three  quarters  of  a 
pound  of  ammonia,  green  cornstalks  and  herd’s  grass 
about  five  pounds  of  ammonia  per  ton  ; red  clover 
affords  about  seventeen  pounds  of  ammonia  per  ton.* 
The  very  great  value  of  clover  in  enriching  land  is 
thus  made  evident.  But  to  return  to  the  quality  of 
the  dung,  as  affected  by  the  food,  it  has  been  proved, 
that  animals  fattening  on  oil-cake  give  manure  in 
value  double  that  of  common  stock.  Here  abundance 
of  nitrogen  is  supplied  where  very  little  is  required, 
and  consequently  much  is  voided  in  dung.  The  point 
to  which  we  have  arrived  is  a breathing  place.  The 
remarks  which  have  been  offered  upon  the  action  of 

* This  is  the  relative,  not  the  absolute,  proportion  of  ammonia. 
The  analysis  of  Boussingault  gives  about  fifty,  and  one  hundred 
and  seventy  as  the  absolute  quantity. 


86 


MANURES. 


salts,  have  prepared  the  way  for  our  entering  upon 
the  next  section — the  second  class  of  manures. 


SECTION  VIII. 

MANURES  CONSISTING-  OF  SALTS. 

In  using  the  term  salts  here,  to  designate  a class  of 
manures,  I wish  to  distinguish  between  these  and 
mineral  manures,  as  they  are  usually  termed.  These 
manures  are  similar  in  kind  to  the  salts,  whose  action 
in  cow  dung  we  have  already  considered.  They  are 
truly  mineral  salts,  derived  from  the  mineral  king- 
dom, entering  into  and  forming  a part  of  plants,  and 
from  this  source  introduced  into  the  dung  of  animals. 
Their  action,  whatever  be  their  name,  has  been  ex- 
plained. But  the  salts  composing  the  second  class  of 
manures  now  under  consideration,  are  not  of  mineral 
origin.  They  are  derived  from  the  animal  kingdom. 
The  source  from  which  they  are  formed  is  the  living 
process  of  the  animal  body.  They  are  animal  salts. 
Here,  then,  let  us  divide  the  second  class  of  manures 
into  animal  salts,  which  are  truly  manures,  both  their 
base  and  their  acid  acting  as  nourishers  of  plants,  and 
into  mineral  salts.  Here  again,  reader,  you  will  find 
that  the  few  facts  which  we  have  pointed  out,  re- 
lating to  the  food  and  nourishment  of  animals,  will 
help  us  on  our  way,  in  tracing  the  source  of  these  ani- 
mal salts. 

It  has  been  already  said,  that  the  food  of  animals  is 
divided  into  two  classes : that  which  does,  and  that 
which  does  not  contain  nitrogen.  All  domestic  ani- 
mals eat  these  classes  together.  In  a few  words,  let 
us  trace  their  course  after  the  anirn^1  has  digested 


A PKIZE  ESSAY. 


87 


them.  The  one  class  goes  to  form  fat,  or  to  support 
the  natural  heat  of  the  body,  and  passes  off  by  the 
skin  in  sweat,  or  in  moisture  of  the  breath,  and  all  its 
excess  or  undigested  part  goes  off*  in  dung.  The  excess 
of  nitrogenous  food,  all  that  not  required  for  repairing 
the  daily  waste  of  the  body,  or  to  increase  its  growth, 
also  passes  off  in  dung,  as  excrement.  This  is  a small 
portion,  and  its  effects  on  the  strength  of  dung  have 
been  pointed  out.  But  the  wear  and  tear,  as  we  may 
call  it,  of  the  flesh  and  blood,  the  parts  which  are  daily 
and  constantly  thrown  out  of  the  body,  as  excretions, 
or  old  materials,  enter  the  circulation,  and  pass  out  of 
the  body  in  urine.  This  is  the  point  to  which  I would 
call  your  attention.  The  undigested  food,  and  the 
excrements  not  containing  nitrogen,  go  off  in  dung. 
The  food  and  the  spent  parts  of  the  body,  containing 
nitrogen,  go  off  in  urine.  This  last,  too,  is  the  course 
of  most  alkaline  salts  taken  into  the  body.  They  pass 
off  in  urine.  Here,  then,  we  come  to  the  subject  quite 
prepared  to  understand  it.  The  urine  is  a collection 
of  salts,  some  of  mineral,  others  of  animal  origin. 
But  that  which  gives  the  urine  its  peculiar  and  char- 
acteristic properties,  is  a substance  formed  from  the 
nitrogenous  food,  and  termed  urea . Now  you  need 
hardly  trouble  yourself  to  remember  this  new  name ; 
all  I want  you  to  understand  about  it  is,  that  when 
urine  is  exposed  to  air  it  rots,  and  this  peculiar  sub- 
stance is  changed  to  ammonia.  That  is  the  point  to 
be  remembered.  In  considering  urine,  therefore,  as 
a manure,  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  point  out  further 
the  mode  of  its  action,  than  to  refer  that  of  every  an- 
imal to  its  salts  and  power  of  forming  ammonia.  The 
quantity  of  the  last  will  be  in  proportion  to  the  quan- 
tity of  urea.  There  are  other  salts  of  ammonia  in 
urine,  and  also  mineral  salts.  These  affect  but  little 
the  value  of  urine  as  a manure. 

It  is  the  urea,  essence  of  urine,  that  substance  which 
forms  ammonia  in  rotting  urine,  which  alone  makes 
this  liquid  more  valuable  than  dung.  Hence,  reader, 


88 


MANURES. 


if  this  is  impressed  on  your  mind,  you  will  perceive 
that  the  chiefest  things  to  be  regarded  in  urine  are, 
first,  the  circumstances  which  affect  the  quality  and 
quantity ; second,  the  best  mode  of  promoting  a 
change  of  urine  to  ammonia ; third,  the  time  required 
for  the  process  ; and  fourth,  the  best  mode  of  preserv- 
ing the  ammonia,  when  formed.  You  will  perceive, 
reader,  that  all  along,  I have  endeavored  to  point  out 
the  principles  on  which  manures  act.  If  you  go  by 
general  principles,  then  for  a plain  practical  farmer, 
like  yourself,  with  only  chemistry  enough  to  under- 
stand a few  of  its  terms,  it  must  be  quite  a thankless 
service,  to  point  out  to  you  in  detail  all  the  various 
things  contained  in  urine.  It  would  confuse  you  more 
than  the  names,  ay,  and  hard  ones  too,  which  are 
given  to  the  varieties  of  pears  and  apples.  All  you 
want  to  know  is  this,  Does  urine  contain,  as  solid  dung 
does,  water,  mould,  and  salts  ? 

It  does.  The  mould  is  so  small  a part,  it  may  be 
left  out  of  view.  The  salts  are  like  those  in  the  solid 
dung,  mineral  salts,  and  then  we  have  the  peculiar 
principle  urea,  which,  for  all  practical  purposes,  may 
be  called  ammonia.  We  may  then,  with  this  division, 
present  in  a table  the  composition  of  the  urine  of 
various  animals  at  one  glance : — 


Horse  “ 
Sheep  “ 
Hog  “ 
Human  “ 


Water. 

Salts. 

Ammonia. 

per 

100  lbs., 

92.62 

3.38 

4.00 

u 

U 

94.00 

5.03 

0.70 

u 

u 

96.00 

1.20 

2.80 

it 

u 

92.60 

1.76 

5.64 

it 

u 

95.75 

1.88 

2.36 

Now  cast  your  eye  carefully  over  this  table : the 
figures  at  once  tell  you  the  value  of  these  different 
liquids.  The  last  column  gives  the  true  value.  The 
other  salts  vary  much  in  quantity,  and  this  affects  the 
quality.  The  actual  amount  of  ammonia  in  human 
urine  and  cattle  dung  is  about  the  same;  yet  in  actual 


A PRIZE  ESSAY. 


39 


practice  it  is  found  the  effects  of  urine  are  nearly 
double  those  of  dung.  Look  now  for  the  reason  of 
this.  In  the  first  place,  the  principle  which  gives  am- 
monia in  urine  runs  at  once  by  putrefaction  into  that 
state.  It  gives  nothing  else ; whereas  in  dung  the 
ammonia  arises  from  a slower  decay,  and  the  principle 
which  here  affords  ammonia  may,  and  without  doubt 
does,  form  other  products.  Hence,  we  have  a quick 
action  with  the  liquid,  a slower  one  with  the  solid. 
A second  cause  of  the  better  effects  of  the  liquid  is, 
that  it  contains,  besides  its  ammonia,  a far  greater 
amount  of  salts,  and  these  give  a more  permanent 
effect.  The  amount  of  salts  in  human,  cow,  and  horse 
dung  is  about  one  pound  in  every  hundred;  while 
the  urine  of  the  same  animals  contains  nearly  six 
pounds  in  every  hundred.  A third  cause  of  the 
greater  fertilizing  action  is  found  in  the  peculiar  char- 
acter of  some  of  these  salts,  which  are  composed  of 
soda,  potash,  lime,  &c.,  united  to  an  acid  formed  from 
urea,  in  the  animal  body.  This  acid  is  like  the  acid 
of  saltpetre  ; it  is  a nourisher  of  plants,  as  much  so  as 
is  carbonic  acid. 


SECTION  IX. 

OF  THE  CAUSES  WHICH  MAKE  URINE  BETTER  OR  WORSE,  MORE 
OR  LESS,  AND  THE  MODES  CF  PRESERVING-  IT. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  same  causes  which 
we  have  pointed  out  as  affecting  the  value  of  dung, 
affect  also  the  urine. 

We  have  already  alluded  (p.  38)  to  the  four  chief 
circumstances  to  be  regarded  in  urine.  And  first,  of 
its  composition.  It  will  be  affected  by  the  age,  sex, 
food,  and  difference  of  animal.  The  process  of  form- 


40 


MANURES. 


ing  urine  is  the  same  in  man  and  animals.  Now  if 
we  reason  here,  as  we  surely  may,  from  analogy,  then 
the  effect  of  age  and  sex  upon  the  quantity  of  the 
essence  of  urine  or  urea,  will  appear  from  the  results 
of  one  hundred  and  twenty  analyses  of  urine. 

In  24  hours  there  are  disch’d  by  men,  432  grs.  of  urea. 
By  women,  .....  293  “ u 

By  old  men,  from  76  to  80  yrs.  of  age,  122  u 11 

By  children,  8 years  of  age,  . . 208  “ “ 

By  children,  4 years  of  age,  . . 70  u 11 

It  will  be  recollected,  that  each  grain  of  urea  is 
equal  to  a grain  of  carbonate  of  ammonia  of  the  shops, 
so  that  a healthy  man  discharges  daily  about  an  ounce 
of  this  salt.  If,  then,  other  animals  are  affected  by 
age  and  sex,  as  is  the  human  species,  then  we  may 
say  that  bulls  and  oxen  give  a better  urine  than  cows, 
steers  better  than  calves,  and  a venerable  old  cow 
gives  as  much  of  the  essence  of  urine  as  two  calves. 

Food  affects  the  quantity  of  water,  and  that  acting 
merely  to  dilute  the  urine,  renders  it  weaker  in  salts 
for  a given  amount,  though  perhaps  not  the  daily 
amount  of  salts.  Supposing  the  animal  well  fed,  so 
as  to  keep  up  the  wear  and  tear  of  his  blood  and  flesh, 
then  as  the  urine  derives  its  chief  value  from  the  worn- 
out  materials  of  the  body,  the  actual  amount  of  urea 
daily  discharged  may  be  the  same,  though  the  amount 
of  the  urine  may  vary  considerably.  We  may  in- 
crease the  amount  of  salts  and  acids  by  particular 
food,  but  this  can  never  be  continued  long  enough  to 
change  materially  the  character  of  urine  as  a manure. 

Difference  of  animal  has  also  a great  effect  on  the 
quality  of  urine.  The  more  active,  the  greater  the 
wear  and  tear  of  the  flesh,  the  better  the  urine  in 
working  animals.  Where  the  animal  is  stall-fed, 
there,  no  doubt,  the  urine  is  still  richer,  and  the  urine 
of  fattening  animals  is  still  more  valuable.  Hence,  of 
all  animals,  commend  me  to  swine,  as  manufacturers 


A PRIZE  ESSAY. 


41 


of  ammonia.  Cast  your  eye  on  the  table  (page  38)  of 
the  amount  of  urea  or  ammonia  furnished  by  various 
animals.  No  one  exceeds  the  hog.  He  seems  spe- 
cially formed  by  nature  for  this  office.  He  eats  every- 
thing. His  habits  require  very  little  of  that  class  of 
food  which  forms  flesh  and  blood.  He  is  a fat  former, 
a magazine  of  lard,  a real  oil  butt,  and  demands,  there- 
fore, the  food  essential  to  form  fat  and  keep  up  his 
heat.  He  returns,  of  course,  having  little  lean  meat 
to  form,  (nobody  would  praise  him  for  that,)  having 
little  flesh  to  form  to  increase  his  size,  he  returns 
quickly  the  waste  his  body  suffers  as  urea,  which  be- 
comes ammonia.  But  it  is  only  the  still,  and  quiet, 
and  penned  animal,  which  gives  this  valuable  product. 
If  we  would  cause  him  simply  to  produce  the  greatest 
amount  of  his  manufactory,  without  taking  into  ac- 
count his  labor  in  shovelling  over  the  compost  heap, 
perhaps  no  better  rule  can  be  given  than  the  Shaker 
practice  of  feeding  with  lettuce  leaves.  Having  little 
brains  to  replenish  or  build  up,  and  not  quick  in  his 
nerves,  (for  be  it  known  to  you,  reader,  the  opium  of 
lettuce  leaves  is  supposed  to  contribute  mainly  to  the 
formation  of  brain  and  nerves,)  the  opium-eating  hog 
will  return  a vast  amount  of  the  nitrogen  of  his  let- 
tuce, in  the  shape  of  ammonia.  If  now  you  add  to  the 
facts,  common  to  the  nourishment  of  swine,  the  action 
of  ammonia  on  mould,  as  it  has  been  explained,  you 
will  see  that  he  who  neglects  to  fill  his  yards  with 
mould,  and  swine  to  convert  it,  overlooks  one  of  the 
cheapest,  most  effectual,  and  certain  modes  of  forming 
manure,  which  practice  and  theory  unite  in  pronounc- 
ing the  surest  element  of  the  farmer’s  success.  Not 
only  is  the  quality  of  urine  affected  by  age,  sex,  food, 
difference  of  animal,  but  the  season  also  exerts  an  influ- 
ence upon  this  liquid.  The  urine  of  cattle  often  con- 
tains ammonia  ready  formed  in  summer,  but  never  in 
winter.  In  cold  weather,  the  amount  of  ammonia,  or 
rather  the  principle  affording  it,  is  less  ; often  it  is  not 
one  half  in  winter  what  it  is  in  summer.  This  cer- 


42 


MANURES. 


tainly  is  a misfortune  to  the  farmer,  who  generally 
keeps  his  cattle  up  only  in  winter ; but  then  it  is  an 
argument  also  for  the  practice  of  summer  soiling. 

Secondly,  with  respect  to  the  circumstances  neces- 
sary to  change  urea  to  ammonia ; or,  in  short  words, 
to  fully  ripen  urine,  or  to  make  it  a fit  manure.  These 
also  depend  upon  the  season,  in  part.  It  is  to  be  re- 
membered, reader,  that  this  rotting  of  urine  is  only 
fermentation.  It  takes  place,  because  there  is  a prin- 
ciple in  urine  which  brings  on  fermentation,  just  as  it 
does  in  new  cider.  Now  if  it  is  by  fermentation  that 
urine  rots,  it  will  take  place,  as  all  fermentation  does, 
best  at  a moderate  temperature.  The  cold  of  winter 
will  prevent  it.  Hence  your  winter  manure  must  be 
allowed  time,  as  the  heat  of  spring  comes  on,  to  fer- 
ment, that  the  urine  may  be  changed  to  ammonia ; 
and  every  means  must  be  taken  to  prevent  the  heat 
rising  beyond,  in  the  manure  heap,  or  falling  below  a 
moderate  temperate  warmth.  These  are  the  circum- 
stances which  chiefly  promote  the  change  from  urea 
to  ammonia. 

Thirdly,  in  regard  to  the  time  in  which  this  change 
will  take  place,  it  will  require  at  least  one  month ; 
and  six  weeks  are  better.  If  urine  be  allowed  to  rot 
for  a month,  it  fully  doubles  its  quantity  of  ammonia. 
In  fact,  it  would  have  contained  more  than  double  the 
ammonia  of  fresh  urine,  had  not  a portion  escaped. 

This  brings  us  to  our  fourth  point,  the  best  mode  of 
preventing  the  flying  off  of  the  ammonia  when  this 
change  has  taken  place.  Much  has  been  said  about 
tanks,  and  vats,  and  urine  pits,  and  many  plans  de- 
vised for  preventing  the  escape  of  volatile  ammonia. 
But  when  once  the  action  of  ammonia  upon  mould  is 
understood,  as  we  have  already  pointed  it  out,  I am 
persuaded,  reader,  that  these  tanks,  and  vats,  and 
urine  carts  will  appear  to  you  not  only  expensive  and 
cumbersome,  but  useless.  Your  first  point  is,  to  save 
your  ammonia ; your  second  is  never  to  use  urine  in 
its  caustic  or  burning  state.  If  you  do,  you  will  as 


A PRIZE  ESSAY. 


43 


assuredly  burn  your  crop,  as  the  puddle  formed  by  a 
cow  burns  the  grass  upon  which  she  empties  her 
watering  pot.  Here  the  urine,  forming  caustic  am- 
monia, acts  as  would  caustic  potash,  or  a lump  of  stone 
lime,  left  to  slack  upon  the  grass.  You  want  to 
change  this  burning  or  caustic  ammonia  into  mild  am- 
monia, or  to  combine  it  with  some  substance  which 
has  not  only  that  effect,  but  also  keeps  it  from  flying 
away.  Unless  you  understand,  then,  the  principles 
of  these  actions,  and  apply  them  too,  your  labor  is  all 
vanity,  when  you  attempt  to  save  your  own  or  your 
cattle’s  urine. 

These  principles  are  in  number,  two.  First,  the 
principle  which  changes  caustic  to  mild  ammonia  is 
carbonic  acid,  derived  from  air,  or  decomposing  mould. 
Second,  the  principles  which  render  ammonia  less 
volatile,  or  wholly  fixed,  are  certain  acids,  formed  in 
mould,  as  sour  mould,  or  certain  salts  which  give  up 
their  acid  to  the  ammonia.  Plaster  of  Paris  does  this, 
by  changing  its  lime  for  ammonia.  How  let  us  go 
into  the  reason  of  this  a little,  and  see  if  we  can  un- 
derstand it.  Yery  slowly,  and  supposing  moisture 
present,  the  oil  of  vitriol  of  the  plaster  quits  its  lime, 
and  unites  to  the  ammonia,  and  so  changes  a volatile 
into  a fixed  salt.  Now  this  is  a change  which  has 
been  of  late  much  insisted  on,  and  the  practice  recom- 
mended, of  strewing  the  stable  and  barn  cellars,  and 
even  the  privies,  with  plaster,  to  save  the  ammonia, 
which  escapes  in  these  places.  But  it  is  doubtful 
whether  the  saving  is  as  great  as  is  usually  supposed, 
for  the  ammonia  arising  from  the  urine  is  caustic,  it 
flies  off  as  caustic  ammonia,  that  has  no  effect  upon 
plaster.  To  produce  this  mutual  effect  of  ammonia 
and  plaster,  the  caustic  ammonia  must  previously  have 
been  made  mild.  However,  this  plan  is  applicable 
only  on  a small  scale.  Copperas,  alum,  common  salt, 
potashes,  and  wood  ashes,  all  act  to  fix  the  volatile 
ammonia,  and  have  all  been  recommended  for  this 
purpose.  But  it  is  easily  seen,  that,  in  employing 


44 


MANURES. 


some  of  these  substances,  is  to  buy  ammonia  almost  at 
apothecary’s  price.  These  practices  will  be  followed, 
therefore,  only  by  those  who  place  the  crop  and  its 
value  upon  ammonia.  This  is  a limited  and  narrow 
view.  The  true  and  farmer-like,  as  well  as  the  most 
scientific  and  natural  mode  of  preserving  the  ammonia 
of  urine,  is  to  fill  your  yards  and  barn  cellars  with 
ptenty  of  mould ; by  which  I mean  truly  decayed  and 
decaying  vegetable  matter,  as  well  as  loam.  There  is 
no  mode  more  effectual,  no  mode  more  economical. 
Consider  now  for  a moment,  how  mould  formed  and 
forming,  and  ammonia  act.  Have  I not  said,  again 
and  again,  that  ammonia  hastens  decay?  that  it 
makes  mould  more  easily  dissolved  ? and  cooks  the 
food  of  plants  ? That  action  having  occurred  during 
its  progress,  acids  were  formed.  The  ammonia  unites 
with  them,  loses  its  burning  properties,  and  becomes 
fixed.  The  acids  having  been  satisfied,  the  ammonia 
is  actually  imbibed  and  retained  by  mould. 

It  does  not  drink  it  in  like  a sponge,  but  the  mould 
forms  a peculiar  chemical  compound  with  ammonia. 
This  peculiar  compound,  while  it  does  not  render  the 
mould  an  easily-dissolved  matter,  yet  holds  ammonia 
by  so  feeble  a force,  that  it  easily  yields  to  the  power 
of  growing  plants.  It  gives  up  the  stored  ammonia 
at  the  place  where,  and  the  time  when,  it  is  most 
wanted.  If  you  remember  these  actions  of  mould  and 
ammonia,  it  will  be  as  plain  as  day,  that  what  we 
have  said  of  the  inexpediency  and  expense  of  vats, 
and  tanks,  and  urine  carts,  must  not  only  be  true,  but 
is  confirmed  by  the  experience  of  a host  of  hard- 
working, thinking,  practical  men.  In  connection  with 
urine,  the  dung  of  birds,  for  instance,  domestic  fowls 
of  all  kinds,  and  pigeons,  may  be  here  mentioned. 
These  animals  discharge  their  solids,  and  what  we  may 
term  their  liquids,  together.  Their  urea  comes  out 
combined  with,  or  forming  part  of  their  dung.  Now 
reflecting  a moment  on  the  nature  of  their  food, 
strongly  nitrogenous,  being  seeds,  grains,  &c.,  or  ani- 


A PRIZE  ESSAY. 


45 


mals,  bugs,  grasshoppers,  &c.,  we  can  understand  why 
their  droppings  are  peculiarly  rich  in  ammonia  and 
salts.  The  strongest  of  all  manures  is  found  in  the 
droppings  of  the  poultry  yard. 

But  since  these  form  but  a small  portion  of  the 
farmer’s  stock,  and  are  never  regarded  as  a principal 
source  of  manure,  their  further  consideration  may  be 
omitted.  It  may  perhaps  be  here  added,  that  as  from 
their  nature  bird  droppings  run  quickly  into  fermenta- 
tion, with  warmth  and  moisture,  so  they  act  quickly, 
and  are  quickty  done.  They  are  more  allied  to  sheep 
dung  than  to  other  manures.  Their  mould  not  being 
great,  droppings  of  poultry  require  to  be  mixed  with 
decayed  vegetable  matter,  or  loam.  To  this  class  be- 
longs the  manure  brought  from  the  Pacific  Ocean,  un- 
der the  name  of  guano , a Spanish  word  for  excrement. 
New-England  farmers  can  find  cheaper  sources  of 
salts,  to  which  the  main  value  of  guano  is  owing,  and 
therefore,  reader,  we  shall  detain  you  no  longer  on 
this  point. 


SECTION  X. 

MINERAL  SALTS,  OR  MANURES. 

Having  thus  considered  the  salts  derived  » om  the 
animal,  let  us  now  proceed  to  those  derived  tiona  the 
mineral  kingdom.  Among  these,  we  shall  find  some 
whose  action  is  similar  to  that  of  the  animal  salts ; 
that  is,  they  are  true  nourishers  of  plants. 

They  afford,  by  the  action  of  the  growing  plant, 
the  same  elements  as  the  animal  salts.  Of  this  nature 
is  saltpetre.  Now,  reader,  I want  you  to  understand 
by  saltpetre,  not  only  that  well-known  substance,  but 
also  that  which  has  lately  been  much  used  in  farming, 
South  American  saltpetre.  This  differs  from  common 


46 


MANURES. 


saltpetre,  by  changing  its  potash  for  soda.  One  step 
more.  I want  you  to  understand  by  saltpetre,  not  one 
salt,  but,  in  farming,  a class  of  salts ; that  is,  a num- 
ber, having  the  same  acid,  which  may  be  combined 
with  several  different  bases  which  all  act  one  way. 
Saltpetre  being  a salt,  of  course  must  be  composed  of 
an  acid  and  a base.  The  acid  is  always  aqua-fortis,  or 
nitric  acid.  The  base  may  be  potash,  or  soda,  or  lime, 
or  ammonia.  These  all  may  be  called  saltpetre.  In 
forming  saltpetre,  it  is  generally  that  variety  which 
contains  lime  and  aqua-fortis  which  is  procured.  So 
far  as  we  understand  the  action  of  salts,  and  this  has 
been  fully  explained,  the  action  of  the  varieties  of 
saltpetre  is  the  same ; and  were  it  not  for  the  peculiar 
nature  of  the  aqua-fortis,  or  acid  of  saltpetre,  the  ex- 
planation of  the  action  of  this  salt  might  be  referred 
to  the  general  laws  above  set  forth.  But  the  acid  of 
saltpetre  is  composed  of  volatile  ingredients.  It  is 
nothing  more  nor  less  than  a compound  of  the  com- 
mon air  we  breathe.  Surprising  as  it  may  seem, 
reader,  yet  it  is  not  the  less  true,  the  common  air  is  a 
mixture  of  oxj^gen  and  nitrogen.  What  a bland  and 
harmless,  yea,  what  a healthful  blessing  is  air,  not 
only  to  us,  but  to  plants  ! It  is  a mere  mixture,  not  a 
chemical  compound,  a mere  mixture.  In  every  hun- 
dred parts,  eighty  of  nitrogen,  twenty  of  oxygen.  Yet 
if  }^ou  compel,  as  natural  operations  are  continually 
competin'  the  air  to  unite  chemically,  so  that  four- 
teen par  > of  nitrogen  shall  unite  to  forty  parts  of 
oxyge'  you  will  form  aqua-fortis.  Now,  I do  not 
mean  ,o  trouble  your  head  further  with  the  chemistry 
of  saltpetre,  than  merely  to  say,  that  having  thus 
shown  you  the  composition  and  origin  of  the  acid  of 
all  kinds  of  saltpetre,  you  will  readily  see,  that  a sub- 
stance which  affords  such  an  abundance  of  nitrogen 
cannot  but  be  beneficial  to  plants.  This  nitrogen 
may,  and  probably  does,  form  some  portion  of  ammo- 
nia in  the  soil.  It  may  enter  as  nitrogen  into  the 
plants,  dissolved  in  water,  as  a very  weak  aqua-fortis, 


A PRIZE  ESSAY. 


47 


We  have  said  so  much  upon  the  action  of  ammonia 
and  nitrogen,  that  you  will  perceive  how  important  a 
part  nitre  is  likely  to  play  in  manure.  Not  only  does 
the  nitrogen  act  here,  but  the  oxygen,  the  other  com- 
ponent of  the  acid,  also  acts.  It  acts  upon  the  mould 
as  air  itself  would.  Besides,  the  mould  of  soil  and 
manure  imbibes  and  condenses  this  oxygen  in  its 
pores,  and  consequently  heats  a little ; so  that  saltpe- 
tre, whether  added  as  such  to  soil,  or  formed  in  ma- 
nure, as  it  is  always,  helps  to  warm  a little  the  soil, 
like  fermenting  manure.  So  far  as  these  effects  are 
desirable  they  may  be  expected  from  the  use  of  salt- 
petre. But  this,,  reader,  if  you  buy  your  saltpetre,  is 
procuring  a small  effect  at  a great  price.  The  action 
of  the  alkali  of  saltpetre  is  not  different  from  alkali  in 
other  shapes,  and  therefore  if  you  have  money  to  lay 
out  for  salts,  let  me  advise  you,  reader,  to  spend  it 
rather  for  ashes  than  for  saltpetre. 


SECTION  XI. 

OF  ARTIFICIAL  KITRE  BEDS. 

But  there  is  a fashion  in  manures  as  well  as  in  other 
things,  and  saltpetre  is  now  so  fashionable  that  you 
may  be  inclined  to  use  it.  Be  it  so.  I will  show  you, 
reader,  how  to  make  it  for  yourself,  and  at  the  same 
time  form  a large  pile  of  capital  mould..  But  as  you 
have  begun  to  inquire  a little  into  the  reason  of  things, 
let  us  go  a little  into  the  reasons  why  the  earth  under 
all  barns  where  cattle  are  kept,  why  the  plaster  of  old 
houses  and  cellar  walls,  always  afford  saltpetre.  You 
well  know  that  this  is  the  case,  and  why  ? We  have 
already  told  you,  that  the  acid  of  saltpetre,  that  is,  the 
aqua-fortis,  is  formed  of  the  air  we  breathe.  Now 


48 


MANURES. 


alkalies  and  porous  bodies  compel  the  constituents  of 
air,  under  certain  circumstances,  to  unite  and  form 
aqua-fortis,  and  this  immediately  unites  to  the  alkali, 
and  forms  saltpetre.  The  best  alkali  to  compel  this 
union,  is  ammonia.  Hence,  where  plenty  of  animal 
matter  is  fermenting,  or  rotting,  or  where  plenty  of 
urine  is,  there,  porous  bodies  being  present,  saltpetre 
will  be  formed.  Now  this  is  enough  for  you,  to  un- 
derstand the  principle  upon  which  I propose  to  you  to 
form  an  artificial  nitre  bed  for  your  own  use.  It  has 
been  found  that  the  manure  of  twenty -five  cows,  asses, 
and  mules,  in  layers  of  about  four  inches  thick,  with 
layers  of  the  same  thickness  of  chalky  soil,  first  one 
and  then  the  other,  and  now  and  then  damped  with 
the  urine  of  the  stable,  produces  from  1,000  to  1,200 
lbs.  of  saltpetre  in  four  years. 

The  heap  is  formed  under  cover,  and  occasionally 
shovelled  over.  At  the  end  of  two  years,  it  is  it  mass 
of  rich  mould.  It  is  left  two  years  longer,  with  an 
occasional  turning  over,  but  it  is  not  wet  with  urine 
for  the  last  few  months.  The  dung  the  farmer  has 
always ; he  wants  the  porous  chalky  body.  This  may 
be  furnished  by  spent  ashes,  mixed  up  with  its  bulk 
of  loam.  Hence  the  following  rule  may  be  given  : — - 
One  cord  of  clear  cow  dung,  one  cord  of  spent  ashes, 
one  cord  of  loam  or  swamp  muck.  Mix  the  ashes  and 
the  swamp  muck  well,  and  having  hard  rammed  the 
barn  cellar  floor,  or  that  under  a shed,  lay  a bed  upon 
it  four  inches  thick,  of  these  mixed  materials ; then  a 
layer  of  dung,  three  or  four  inches  thick,  and  so  on, 
till  the  pile  is  two  or  three  feet  high,  topping  off  with 
loam.  Wet  it  occasionally  with  urine,  keeping  it 
always  about  as  moist  as  garden  mould.  Shovel  over 
once  a fortnight  for  two  years.  The  pile  now  contains 
about  fifty  pounds  of  several  varieties  of  saltpetre,  and 
mixed  throughout  with  nearly  three  cords  of  excellent 
manure.  It  may,  therefore,  be  now  used,  according 
to  the  farmer’s  judgment.  By  thoughtful  manage- 
ment he  may,  after  the  first  two  years,  annually  col- 


A PRIZE  ESSAY. 


49 


lect  as  many  fifty  pounds  as  he  employs  cords  of  cow 
dung.  But,  however  prepared,  nitre  affords,  by  its 
elements,  nourishment  to  plants.  All  its  parts  act. 
Its  alkali  acts,  and  its  acid  acts. 


SECTION  XII. 


ASHES. 

It  is  easy  to  see  that  salts,  whatever  be  their  name 
or  nature,  which  are  likely  to  be  of  any  service  to 
the  farmer,  are  those  only  which  either  enter  into  and 
form  part  of  the  plants,  or  which,  by  the  action  of 
their  acid  or  base,  act  on  the  earthy  parts  of  soil,  or 
upon  the  mould.  Salts  either  poison  or  nourish 
plants.  The  first,  like  the  medicines  we  take,  are 
good  in  small  doses;  the  second  can  hardly  injure, 
even  by  their  excess.  If  we  recur  to  the  principle, 
with  which  we  set  out  early  in  this  essay,  that  the 
ashes  of  plants  contain  all  their  salts,  then,  rightly  to 
know  what  salts  are  likely  to  produce  good  effects  as 
manure,  we  should  first  study  the  composition  of 
ashes.  We  have,  in  ashes,  a great  variety  of  sub- 
stances. They  come  from  the  soil.  They  form  a 
part  of  plants.  The  dead  plant  returns  them  again  to 
their  mother  earth,  or  we,  losing  the  volatile  parts  of 
a plant,  its  mould  and  ammonia,  by  burning,  collect 
its  salts  as  ashes.  Let  us  see  what  these  salts  are  made 
of.  In  the  first  place,  you  know,  all  salts  are  com- 
posed of  an  acid  and  a base. 

The  bases  are, 

Potash  and  soda, 

Lime, 


The  acids  are, 

Carbonic,  or  carbon  united  to 
oxygen, 

Phosphoric,  or  phosphorus,  do. 


8 


50 


MANURES. 


Magnesia, 

Clay, 


j Sulphuric,  or  sulphur  united  to 
( oxygen. 

( Muriatic,  essentially  composed  of 
\ chlorine. 


Iron, 

Manganese, 

Silex,  or  the  earth  of  flints. 


Now  if  we  throw  out  the  carbonic  acid,  which  has 
been  formed  in  burning,  we  have  left  in  ashes  three 
acids,  which  are  united  with  the  bases,  and  may  form 
the  following  salts  in  plants,  namely  : — Glauber’s  salt, 
Epsom  salt,  common  table  salt,  bonedust,  a salt  of 
lime,  and  what  we  may  term  a bonedust  salt  of  iron, 
or  phosphate  of  iron,  plaster  of  Paris,  or  gypsum, 
copperas,  alum,  and  some  other  salts,  which  need  not 
be  enumerated.  Our  list  comprises  the  principal,  and 
those  most  likely  to  be  used  in  farming.  Well,  now, 
the  lesson  to  be  drawn  from  this  composition  of  ashes 
is  this,  that  there  is  scarcely  any  salt  occurring  in 
commerce,  which  may  not  be  used  in  agriculture, 
instead  of  those  found  in  ashes.  In  fact,  almost  all 
salts  which  occur  in  a large  way,  as  refuse  materials 
from  manufactures  or  other  sources,  have  been  used, 
and  all  with  greater  or  less  success,  as  manures.  And 
if  you  cast  your  eye  over  the  acids  and  bases  of  com- 
mon ashes,  this  seems  quite  reasonable.  It  is  not 
expected  that  a plain  farmer,  possessing  little  or  no 
chemical  knowledge,  should  be  able  to  tell  before- 
hand what  the  effect  of  a salt  would  be,  applied  to 
his  land  ; but  if  he  understands  what  the  composition 
of  ashes  is,  he  may  be  sure  that  in  any  quantity  in 
which  the  salt  is  likely  to  occur,  it  cannot  be  injurious, 
provided  it  is  mixed  up  with  plenty  of  mould,  and  a 
little  ashes,  or  alkali,  which  will  kill  or  neutralize  any 
excess  of  the  poisonous  acid. 

In  ashes,  we  have  one  part  which  may  be  leached 
out,  and  a part  which  remains  after  leaching,  called 
spent  ashes.  Let  us  see  then,  in  leaching,  what  parts 


A PRIZE  ESSAY. 


51 


we  take  away.  First,  we  take  away  all  the  acids 
except  the  phosphoric.  Secondly,  we  take  away 
nearly  all  the  potash  and  soda.  What  is  left  ? All 
the  other  bases  and  phosphoric  acid.  It  is  evident, 
therefore,  that  the  strength  of  ashes  can  never  be 
wholly  leached  out,  if  that  depends  upon  the  salts. 
In  spent  ashes,  we  have  nearly  all  the  bonedust  left ; 
and,  besides  this,  a portion  of  what  is  usually  consid- 
ered the  real  strength,  that  is,  the  potash.  This  is 
chemically  united  to  certain  of  the  other  constituents 
of  ashes.  You  cannot  leach  it  out,  leach  you  ever  so 
long.  Upset  your  leach  tubs,  shovel  over  your  spent 
ashes,  mix  it  up  with  fermenting  manure,  where  a 
plenty  of  fixed  air  is  given  off.  Here  is  the  secret  of 
the  value  of  spent  ashes,  so  far  as  the  potash  or  ley 
strength  is  concerned.  This  exposure  to  air,  to  car- 
bonic acid,  lets  loose  the  potash,  which  was  chemically 
combined  with  the  other  matters.  Water  would 
never  have  done  this.  Mark  now  a practical  lesson, 
taught  here  by  chemistry,  and  confirmed  by  experi- 
ence. Leached  ashes  must  never  be  used  on  wet  soil, 
if  we  want  its  alkali  to  act.  The  close  wet  soil,  per- 
haps even  half  covered  at  times  with  water,  excludes 
the  air.  The  carbonic  acid  of  air,  that  which  alone 
extracts  the  alkali  from  spent  ashes,  cannot  here  act. 
There  is  this  other  lesson  to  be  learned  from  these 
facts,  that  it  is  chiefly  the  alkaline  action  which  is 
wanted  from  spent  ashes.  Hence  no  one  who  thus 
understands  the  source,  and  the  true  value  of  ashes, 
will  allow  the  alkaline  portion  to  be  first  leached  out, 
unless  he  can  find  a more  economical  use  for  it  than 
its  application  as  a fertilizer.  Perhaps  no  fact  speaks 
louder,  that  the  great  action  of  spent  ashes  is  that  of 
its  potash,  than  this,  that  where  we  prevent  that  from 
being  extracted,  the  spent  ashes  are  of  little  value. 
If,  then,  spent  ashes  derive  their  great  value  from  the 
potash,  much  more  will  unleached  ashes  derive  their 
value  from  their  potash. 

Now,  reader,  the  point  to  which  I have  led  you, 


52 


MANUBES. 


in  these  remarks,  is  this,  that  the  more  alkaline  any 
salt  is,  the  better  is  it  for  manure.  Hence,  as  a gen- 
eral rule  about  the  use  of  salts,  it  may  be  laid  down 
that  the  alkaline  salts,  that  is,  potash,  pearlash,  com- 
mon ashes,  barilla  ashes,  white,  or  soda  ash,  are  the 
best.  And  as  these,  in  all  their  various  shapes,  are 
the  cheapest  and  most  common  articles,  so  you  need 
not  run  after  a long  list  of  other  salts.  Next  in  value 
to  the  real  alkalies,  are  spent  ashes,  used  in  a light, 
porous,  open,  sandy  soil,  if  you  would  derive  the 
greatest  benefit  from  them.  Next  to  these  come  peat 
ashes.  You  well  know  these  are  of  no  value  to  the 
soapmaker.  But  not  so  to  you.  They  show  only 
traces  of  alkaline  power.  But  treat  them  as  you  did 
spent  ashes.  Their  power,  independent  of  their  bone- 
dust,  which  is  by  no  means  small,  and  their  plaster, 
which  is  still  greater,  and  their  lime,  which  is  perhaps 
the  greatest,  lies  in  the  alkali,  which  is  locked  up,  as 
it  is  in  spent  ashes.  Treat  them,  therefore,  as  you  did 
spent  ashes,  and  then  peat  ashes  will ' and  do  afford 
alkali.  So  too  coal  ashes,  even  your  hard  anthracite 
ashes,  yield  all  the  substances  which  spent  ashes  do. 
It  is  easily  seen,  therefore,  when,  how,  and  where 
spent  ashes,  peat  ashes,  coal  ashes,  are  most  likely  to 
do  good.  Perhaps  we  may  not  have  a better  place  to 
state  the  fact,  that  a cord  of  soap-boilers’  spent  ashes 
contains  about  fifty  pounds  of  potash.  When  we  add 
to  this,  one  hundred  and  seventeen  pounds  of  bone- 
dust,  and  about  a ton  and  a half  of  chalk,  or  carbonate 
of  lime,  which  acts  chiefly  on  the  soil,  and  so  comes 
not  now  under  consideration,  it  is  seen  that  there  is 
no  cheaper  source  of  alkali  and  salts,  to  one  within 
reasonable  carting  distance  of  a soap-boiler,  than  spent 
ashes.  They  are  marl,  bonedust,  plaster,  and  alkali 
combined. 


A PRIZE  ESSAY. 


53 


SECTION  XIII. 

MANURES  COMPCSED  CHIEFLY  OF  MOULD. 

These  are  of  vegetable  or  animal  origin.  And 
first,  of  animal  mould.  Here  we  shall  find  that  we 
come,  perhaps,  better  prepared  to  understand  this 
part  of  our  subject,  than  either  of  the  preceding 
classes.  We  have  explained  the  principles  which  en- 
able us  to  understand  why  it  is  that  animal  and  vege- 
table substances  produce,  by  decay,  identical  matters. 
The  only  difference  consists  in  the  quantity  of  these 
matters. 

Let  me  here,  reader,  call  to  your  remembrance  the 
facts  we  stated  respecting  the  two  classes  of  food,  and 
the  two  classes  of  substances  formed  from  that  food 
by  animals.  A certain  portion  of  that  food  contains 
none  of  that  principle  which  forms  ammonia.  This 
portion  of  food  makes  fat.  Another  portion  of  food 
contains  the  substance  which  forms  ammonia.  This 
part  of  the  food  forms  flesh  and  blood,  and  the  other 
parts  of  the  body,  skin,  hair,  feathers,  bristles,  wool, 
horns,  hoofs,  nails  and  claws,  thews  and  sinews.  Now, 
when  a body  dies  and  decays,  the  mould  which  it 
forms  will  be  rich  manure,  or  poor  manure,  just  in 
proportion  as  it  contains  more  or  less  of  the  substances 
formed  out  of  that  portion  of  food  which  furnishes 
flesh  and  blood.  The  fat,  therefore,  in  animal  mould, 
plays  a very  inferior  part  to  that  acted  by  the  flesh 
and  blood.  In  a word,  as  I wish  to  dismiss  the  fatty 
matters  from  our  present  consideration,  I may  do  this, 
reader,  by  stating  to  you  all  that  yon  need  know,  that 
in  decay,  fat  forms  chiefly  carbonic  acid.  If,  therefore, 
you  call  to  mind  what  we  have  said  about  the  action 
of  that,  you  will  see  how  fat  acts  in  manure.  But  the 
flesh  and  blood,  and  the  substances  formed  from  it, 
give  precisely  the  same  things  as  vegetables  do  when 
they  decay  ; that  is,  water,  mould,  and  salts. 


54 


MANURES. 


The  great  difference  between  the  decay  of  animal 
and  vegetable  matters  is  this,  that  as  the  animal 
bodies  are  far  richer  in  the  substance  which  forms 
ammonia,  so  they  afford  a richer  source  of  manure. 
The  animal  body  contains  that  element  in  quantity 
enough,  not  only  to  fill  the  pores  of  its  own  mould, 
but  also  enough  to  impregnate  a large  quantity  of 
mould  from  other  sources.  The  vegetable  body,  on 
the  contrary,  contains  scarcely  enough  ammonia  to  fill 
its  own  mould.  Vegetables  differ  in  the  quantities  of 
the  elements  of  food  which  can  furnish  flesh  and  bood ; 
and  hence  those  vegetables  are  best  for  manure  which 
furnish  most  ammonia.  We  have  already  remarked 
on  the  difference,  in  this  respect,  between  straws, 
grasses,  and  clover.  But  without  going  further  into 
this  comparison,  which  can  have  no  other  practical 
bearing  than  to  show  you  the  immense  difference  in 
value,  in  animal  and  vegetable  bodies,  in  forming  ma- 
nure, we  may  here  resolve  the  subject  into  one  great 
principle.  The  substance  which  forms  flesh  and  blood, 
whether  derived  from  plants  or  animals,  alone  forms 
ammonia  during  their  decay,  and  the  mould  thence 
arising  is  rich  or  poor  manure,  just  in  proportion  as  it 
contains  the  substance  fit  to  form  flesh  and  blood. 
Starting  from  this  principle,  we  find  that  animal  sub- 
stances, as  flesh,  fish,  fowl,  the  body  generally,  includ- 
ing its  various  forms  of  covering,  hair,  wool,  feathers, 
nails,  hoofs,  horns,  claws,  &c.,  afford,  in  the  process  of 
decay,  about  ten  times  more  ammonia  than  the  straws 
and  grasses  usually  entering  into  the  compost  heap. 
The  animal  bodies  give  more  volatile  alkali  than  their 
mould  can  contain. 

It  is  given  off  in  such  quantity  that  decay  is  rapidly 
hastened.  All  the  signs  of  putrefaction,  therefore, 
rapidly  take  place.  The  quantity  of  mould  being 
small,  nothing  holds  the  volatile  parts;  they  escape 
and  are  lost.  Now  common  sense  and  practical  fore- 
sight have  stepped  in  here,  from  time  immemorial,  and 
taught  mankind  the  necessity  and  the  utility  of  pre- 


A PRIZE  ESSAY. 


65 


venting  the  waste  of  the  volatile  and  most  valuable 
parts  of  the  decaying  animal  substances,  by  covering 
them  in  with  earth,  soil,  &c.  These  imbibe  the  es- 
caping virtue  or  strength,  and  become  rich  and  fer- 
tilizing. It  remains  to  state,  that  every  pound  of  ani- 
mal carcass  can  impregnate  ten  pounds  of  vegetable 
mould ; or,  taking  our  arable  soils  as  they  usually  oc- 
cur, one  pound  of  flesh,  fish,  blood,  wool,  horn,  &c., 
can  fertilize  three  hundred  pounds  of  common  loam. 
You  will  see,  therefore,  reader,  how  little  you  have 
now  to  learn  of  the  necessity  of  saving  everything  in 
the  shape  of  animal  matters,  and  converting  them  to 
manure,  by  turning  them  into  your  compost  heap.  It 
is  to  be  remarked,  that  the  dry  forms  of  animal  sub- 
stances undergo  the  process  of  decay  when  left  to  their 
own  action  very  slowly.  Wool,  hair,  flocks,  horn 
shavings,  &c.,  or  even  leather  chips  and  curriers’ 
shavings,  bear  long  exposure,  and  seem  quite  in- 
destructible. They  yet  are  rich  in  all  the  true  virtue 
of  manure.  They  want  something  to  bring  this  out, 
to  set  them  a-working,  to  bring  on  fermentation. 
Well,  on  this  head  we  may  lay  down  two  rules.  The 
first  is,  that  if  buried  among  a heap  of  fermenting 
matter,  that  communicates  a similar  change  to  these 
dry,  animal  substances.  This  is  slow  work. 

The  second  rule  is,  that  if  these  dry  matters  are 
buried  in  the  soil  among  the  roots  of  growing  plants, 
then  these  act  more  powerfully  than  fermentation,  and 
the  dry  substances  are  converted  to  manure  with  a 
speed  which  may  be  called  quick,  compared  to  the 
fermenting  process.  The  practical  lesson  to  be  drawn 
from  these  differences  of  action  between  the  fleshy 
and  horny  parts  of  animals  is,  that  when  you  want  a 
quick  and  short  action  of  manure,  to  use  the  fleshy 
and  fluid  parts.  Where  you  want  a more  slow  and 
permanent  action,  to  commence  and  long  last  after 
the  first  is  over,  to  use  the  dryer  and  harder  parts. 

If  now  we  turn  to  the  other  division  of  mould,  that 
from  vegetables,  we  find  it  lacking  in  the  very  thing 


66  MANURES. 

which,  was  superabundant  in  animal  mould.  That 
thing  is  volatile  alkali.  The  great  mass  of  vegetable 
mould  is  always  impregnated,  but  always  slightly 
charged,  with  volatile  alkali.  There  is  not  enough  of 
the  flesh  and  blood  forming  element  in  vegetables  to 
hasten  the  decay  of  vegetable  matter,  or  to  convert 
them,  after  decay,  into  rich  manure.  Now  here  again 
not  science,  but  practical  common  sense  steps  in,  and 
did  step  in  long  ago,  and  as  she  taught  mankind  the 
necessity  of  adding  soil  or  mould  to  the  decaying  ani- 
mal matter,  so  here,  to  enrich  vegetable  mould,  she 
teaches  that  animal  matter,  or  that  which  is  its  repre- 
sentative, alkaline  salts , must  be  added  to  vegetable 
mould,  to  make  it  active.  It  is  not  the  mould  alone 
which  plants  want.  We  have  seen  all  along  how  na- 
ture provides  a certain  amount  of  salts  in  her  virgin 
mould ; we,  by  cropping,  exhaust  these  faster  than 
the  mould.  We  have  tons  of  that,  yet  our  fields  are 
barren.  They  want,  as  has  been  explained,  salts. 

And  now,  reader,  having  been  brought  by  this  course 
of  reasoning  to  what  the  mould  wants,  consider  what  tons 
and  tons  of  useless  mould  you  have  in  your  swamp  muck 
and  peat  bogs,  your  hassocks,  and  your  turfy  meadows. 
All  these,  foot  upon  foot  in  depth  as  they  lie,  are  truly 
vegetable  mould,  in  a greater  or  less  degree  of  decay. 
If  you  dig  this  up,  and  expose  it  to  the  air,  that  itself 
sets  it  to  work,  decay  is  hastened,  volatile  matters 
escape,  yea,  ammonia,  the  master  spirit  among  manures, 
is  secretly  forming  and  at  work,  warming  and  sweet- 
ening the  cold  and  sour  muck.  Without  further  pre- 
paration, practice  confirms  what  theory  teaches,  that 
this  process  alone  furnishes  from  these  beds  of  vege- 
table mould  a very  good  manure.  It  is  already  highly 
charged  with  all  the  salts  which  a plant  wants.  But 
experience,  doubtless  led  by  the  light  of  the  good  re- 
sults of  mixing  mould  with  animal  matter,  to  preserve 
its  strength,  has  also  reversed  the  practice,  and  taught 
the  utility  of  adding  to  vegetable  mould  quickening 
salts  ; that  is,  either  the  volatile  alkali,  by  composting 


A PRIZE  ESSAY. 


57 


the  mould  with  stable  manure,  or  alkali  in  the  shape 
of  ashes,  or  potash,  or  soda  ash,  or  lime,  or  a mixture 
of  these.  In  fact,  whatever  substance  can  by  putre- 
faction give  off  volatile  alkali,  will  and  must  and  does 
convert  vegetable  mould,  of  itself  dead  and  inactive, 
into  a quick  and  fertilizing  manure. 

If  then,  reader,  you  pause  here  a moment  upon  this 
fact,  and  then  cast  your  view  backward  over  the  prin- 
ciples we  have  endeavored  to  impress  on  your  memory, 
you  will  perceive  that  there  is  not,  among  all  the  class- 
es and  kinds  of  manure  which  we  have  shown  you, 
one  which  may  not  be  added,  or,  as  is  the  phrase,  com- 
posted with  peat,  meadow  mud,  swamp  muck,  pond 
mud,  or  by  whatever  other  name  these  great  store- 
houses of  vegetable  matter  are  called.  These  are  the 
true  sources  of  abundant  manure,  to  all  whose  stock 
of  cattle,  &c.,  is  too  small  to  give  manure  enough  for 
the  farmer’s  use.  It  is  the  farmer’s  business  to  make 
a choice,  if  he  has  any  but  Hobson’s,  of  what  substance, 
or  mixture  of  substances,  he  will  use.  We  have  shown 
him  how  small  a portion  of  animal  matter,  one  to  ten 
of  pure  mould,  will  impregnate  that  substance.  Tak- 
ing then  a cord  of  this  swamp  muck,  we  shall  find  it 
contains,  in  round  numbers,  about  one  thousand  pounds 
of  real  dry  vegetable  mould.  So  that  the  carcass  of 
an  animal  weighing  one  hundred  pounds,  evenly  and 
well  mixed  up  with  a cord  of  fresh-dug  muck,  will 
make  a cord  of  manure,  containing  all  the  elements, 
and  their  amount  too,  of  a cord  of  dung. 

But  it  is  not  from  the  carcasses  of  animals  that  the 
farmer  expects  to  derive  the  quickening  salts  for  his 
muck.  This  can  be  the  source  of  that  power  only  to 
the  butchers,  (what  fat  lands  they  all  have  !)  or  to  the 
dwellers  near  the  sea,  where  fish  is  plenty.  A barrel 
of  alewives,  it  is  said,  fertilizes  a wagon  load  of  loam. 
The  carcass  of  a horse  converts  and  fertilizes  five  or 
six  cords  of  swamp  muck.  A cord  of  clear  stable 
dung  changes  two  cords  of  this  same  muck  into  a 
manure  as  rich  and  durable  as  stable  manure  itself. 


58 


MANURES. 


These  are  all  the  results,  reader,  of  actual  practice. 
The  explanation  of  the  principle  has  only  come  in 
since  the  practice,  and  showed  the  how  and  the  why 
of  this  action.  But  the  merit  of  explaining  this  action 
would  be,  is  nothing,  if  it  had  not  conducted  one  step 
further. 

The  explanation  of  the  principle  of  action  of  animal 
matters,  animal  manures  of  all  kinds,  whether  solid  or 
liquid,  on  muck  or  peat,  has  led  chemistry  to  propose, 
where  these  cheap  and  common  forms  of  quickening 
power  are  not  to  be  had,  to  mix  ashes,  or  potash,  or 
soda  ash  with  swamp  muck.  Now,  reader,  this  is  not 
an  idle,  visionary,  book-farming  scheme.  It  is  perhaps 
one  of  the  few  successful,  direct  applications  of  chem- 
istry to  farming,  which  speaks  out  in  defence  of  such 
book-farming,  in  tones  and  terms  which  bespeak  your 
favorable  consideration  for  the  attempt  which  science 
is  making  to  lend  you,  reader,  a helping  hand.  This 
proposal,  the  offspring  of  science,  has  been  carried  out 
successfully  by  practical  men  in  our  own  country,  and 
has  made  its  way  abroad.  Though  this  is  not  the  place 
to  give  you  the  details  of  their  results,  you  may  rely 
upon  the  fact,  that  alkali  and  swamp  muck  do  form 
a manure,  cord  for  cord,  in  all  soils,  equal  to  stable 
dung. 

Well  now,  after  your  patience  in  going  over  these 
pages,  I hope  you  will  find  your  reward  in  this  state- 
ment. To  be  sure,  it  might  have  been  said  at  once, 
and  so  have  done  with  it , but  I hoped,  reader,  and  I 
am  sure  I have  not  been  disappointed,  that  you  liked 
to  dive  a little  into  the  reason  of  things,  and  felt  that 
you  had  farmed  too  long  by  the  rule  of  thumb,  to  be 
satisfied  that  it  was  the  road  either  to  improvement 
or  profit.  And  so  among  your  first  attempts  at  im- 
proving your  worn-out  lands,  always  supposing  that 
you  have  a barn  cellar,  hogs,  and  swamp  muck,  so 
aptly  called  by  one  of  your  own  self-made  practical 
men,  the  “ farmer’s  locomotive,”  I presume  you  may 
like  to  know  the  proportions  in  which  you  may  mix 


A PRIZE  ESSAY. 


59 


swamp  muck  and  alkali.  You  can  hardly  go  wrong 
here  by  using  too  much  ; the  great  danger  is,  you  will 
use  too  little  alkali.  But  calculating  on  the  propor- 
tion of  mould  in  fresh-dug  swamp  muck,  or  peat,  it 
may  be  stated  as  a rule,  grounded  on  the  quantity  of 
quickening  power  in  a cord  of  stable  manure,  that 
every  cord  of  swamp  muck  requires  eight  bushels  of 
common  ashes,  or  thirty  pounds  of  common  potash,  or 
twenty  pounds  of  white  or  soda  ash,  to  convert  it  into 
manure  equal,  cord  for  cord,  to  that  from  your  stable. 
Dig  up  your  peat  in  the  fall,  let  it  lie  over  winter  to 
fall  to  powder,  calculate  your  quantity  when  fresh  dug, 
and  allow  nothing  for  shrinking  in  the  spring ; when 
your  alkali  is  to  be  well  mixed  in  with  the  mould,  and, 
after  shovelling  over  for  a few  weeks,  use  it  as  you 
would  stable  manure. 

These  quantities  of  ashes  and  alkali  are  the  lowest 
which  may  be  advised.  Three  or  four  times  this 
amount  may  be  used  with  advantage,  but  both  the 
quantity  of  alkali  and  the  number  of  loads  per  acre 
must  and  will  be  determined  by  each  for  himself.  It 
is  a question  of  ways  and  means,  rather  than  of  prac- 
tice. But  supposing  the  smallest  quantity  of  ashes  or 
of  alkali  to  be  used  which  we  have  advised,  then  at 
least  five  cords  of  the  compost  should  be  used  pet 
acre.  This  may  be  applied  to  any  soil,  light  or  heavy. 
But  there  is  another  form  of  this  same  swamp  muck 
and  alkali,  which  should  be  used  only  on  light,  loamy, 
sandy  soils,  to  produce  its  greatest  benefit,  though 
even  on  heavy  soils,  if  not  very  wet,  it  may  be  used 
with  great  advantage.  This  is  a compost  of  one  cord 
of  spent  ashes  to  three  cords  of  swamp  muck.  This 
is  decidedly  the  best  mixture  which  has  yet  been  tried. 
We  have  in  this  all  that  mixture  of  various  salt  and 
mould  which  plants  want,  and  both  by  the  action  of 
the  mould  and  by  that  of  the  air,  the  alkali  of  the 
spent  ashes,  which  no  leaching  would  extract,  is  soon 
let  loose,  and  produces  all  the  effects  of  so  much  clear 
potash  or  soda. 


60 


MANURES. 


I have  thus,  reader,  given  you  a few  of  the  ways 
by  which  you  may  convert  your  peat  bogs  and  swamps 
into  manure,  when  you  have  neither  cattle  nor  hogs. 
I have  not  thought  it  worth  while  to  go  into  this  sub- 
ject further,  and  give  you  directions  for  lime  and  salt, 
or  other  matters  which  might  be  used.  I have  given 
you  the  most  common,  and  those  well  known  and  at 
hand.  All  you  want,  then,,  to  apply  these  principles 
of  forming  composts,  is  to  give  them  that  little  atten- 
tion which  will  enable  you  to  understand  them.  And 
the  rest  must  be  left  to  your  practical  common  sense, 
without  some  share  of  which,  farming,  like  every- 
thing else,  would  be  vanity  and  vexation  of  spirit. 


THE 


AMERICAN 

KITCHEN  GARDENER; 

CONTAINING 

PRACTICAL  DIRECTIONS  FOR  THE  CULTURE  OF 

VEGETABLES, 

ALSO, 

GARDEN  FRUITS,  STRAWBERRY,  RASPBERRY,  GOOSEBERRY, 
CURRANTS,  MELONS,  &c.,  &c. 

BY  T.  G.  FESSENDEN. 

REVISED  FROM  THE  35th  EDITION,  AND  ADAPTED  TO  THE  USE  OF 
FAMILIES, 

BY  A PRACTICAL  GARDENER. 

NEW  YORK: 

C.  M.  SAXTON, 

AGRICULTURAL  BOOK  PUBLISHER. 

1852. 


Entered  according  to  act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1852,  by 
C.  M.  SAXTON, 

in  tbs  Clerk’s  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States,  for  the  Southern 
District  of  New  York. 


S.  W.  BENEDICT, 
Stereotyper  and  Printer, 
16  Sjn'uce  street,  N.  F. 


PUBLISHER’S  ADVERTISEMENT, 


The  Publisher,  having  found  the  want  of  small,  cheap  Books,  of 
acknowledged  merit,  on  the  great  topics  of  farming  economy,  and 
meeting  for  those  of  such  a class  a constant  demand,  offers,  in  his 
Rural  Handbooks,  of  which  this  is  one,  works  calculated  to  fill  the 
void. 

He  trusts  that  a discerning  Public  will  both  buy  and  read  these 
little  Treatises,  so  admirably  adapted  to  all  classes,  and  fitted  by 
their  size  for  the  pocket,  and  thus  readable  at  the  fireside,  on  the 
road,  and  in  short  everywhere. 

C.  M.  SAXTON, 

Agricultural  Book  Publisher , 


I 


INTRODUCTION. 


The  importance  and  utility  of  Horticulture,  or  the  art  of 
cultivating  those  products  of  the  soil  which  are  used  in  domestic 
eeonomy,  require  no  elaborate  exposition.  The  greatest  bless- 
ings which  a kind  Providence  can  bestow  on  man,  in  his  sub- 
lunary state  of  existence,  are,  health  of  body  and  peace  of  mind  ; 
and  the  pursuits  of  gardening  eminently  conduce  to  these. 
Gardening  was  the  primitive  employment  of  the  first  man  ; and 
the  first  of  men , among  his  descendants,  have  ever  been  attached 
to  that  occupation.  Indeed,  we  can  hardly  form  an  idea  of 
human  felicity,  in  which  a garden  is  not  one  of  its  most  promi- 
nent characteristics. 

Gardening  is  not  only  an  innocent  and  healthy,  but  a profita- 
ble occupation.  It  is  not  alone  by  the  money  which  is  made , 
but  also  by  the  money  which  is  saved , that  the  profits  of  a pursuit 
should  be  estimated.  Where  a good  garden  constitutes  part  of 
a rural  establishment,  and  the  culinary  uses  of  its  productions 
are  well  understood,  the  field  or  the  market  furnishes  a propor- 
tionably  small  part  of  the  provisions  necessary  for  family  con- 
sumption. “ I consider,”  said  Dr.  Deane,  “ the  kitchen  garden 
of  very  considerable  importance,  as  pot-herbs,  salads,  and  roots 
of  various  kinds,  are  useful  in  house-keeping.  Having  a plenty 
of  them  at  hand,  a family  will  not  be  so  likely  to  run  into  the 
error,  which  is  too  common  in  this  country,  of  eating  flesh  in 
too  great  a proportion  for  health.  Farmers,  as  well  as  others, 
should  have  kitchen  gardens  ; and  they  need  not  grudge  the 
labor  of  tending  them,  which  may  be  done  at  odd  intervals  of 


VI 


INTRODUCTION. 


time,  which  would  otherwise  chance  to  be  consumed  in  needless 
loitering.” 

Cowley  says  of  gardening,  “ It  is  one  of  the  best-natured  de- 
lights of  all  others,  for  a man  to  look  about  him,  and  see  nothing 
but  the  effects  and  improvements  of  his  own  art  and  diligence ; 
to  be  always  gathering  some  fruits  of  it,  and  at  the  same  time 
to  behold  others  ripening,  and  others  budding  ; to  see  his  soil 
covered  with  the  beauteous  creatures  of  his  own  industry  ; and 
to  see,  like  God,  that  all  his  works  are  good.” 

"We  shall  here  state,  concisely,  some  of  the  principal  pre- 
requisites for  successful  horticulture,  directing  our  observations, 
chiefly,  to  what  relates  to  the  kitchen  garden.  Gardens  are 
usually  classed  under  the  following  heads  — the  kitchen  garden  ; 
the  fruit  garden  ; and  the  flower  garden, . The  flower  garden, 
being  designed  principally  for  ornament,  should  be  placed  in  the 
most  conspicuous  part,  that  is,  in  front,  or  next  to  the  back  part 
of  the  house;  the  kitchen  garden  and  fruit  garden  may  follow 
in  succession.  With  respect  to  the  natural  situation  of  a gar- 
den, Nicol  and  Forsyth  agree  in  preferring  a gentle  declivity 
towards  the  south,  a little  inclining  to  the  east,  to  receive  the 
benefit  of  the  morning  sun.  A kitchen  garden  should  not  be 
situated  at  any  great  distance  from  the  house,  lest,  being  too 
much  out  of  sight,  it  should  be  out  of  mind,  and  the  necessary 
culture  of  it  too  much  neglected.  It  should  be  placed  adjoining 
to  a stable,  whence  the  dung  may  be  easily  conveyed  into  the 
inclosure.  It  should  be  sheltered,  as  much  as  can  be,  from  the 
north  and  east,  to  prevent  the  blighting  winds  from  affecting  the 
trees.  The  best  soil  for  a garden  is  a sandy  loam,  two  or  three 
feet  deep,  according  to  Forsyth;  but  if  deeper,  the  better.  The 
earth  should  not  be  of  a binding  nature  in  summer,  nor  retentive 
of  rain  in  winter,  but  of  such  a texture  that  it  can  be  worked 
at  any  season,  when  not  frozen,  without  difficulty. 

A garden  should  have  a close  fence,  that  the  winds  may  not 
drive  seeds  of  weeds  into  it.  The  fence  should  be  at  least 
seven  feet  high,  and  picketed  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  thieves. 


INTRODUCTION. 


mi 

The  height  and  closeness  of  the  fence  will  increase  the  vegetation 
by  increasing  the  warmth  of  the  air  in  the  garden,  excepting, 
perhaps,  the  parts  which  are  shaded  by  the  fences.  The  rage  of 
high  winds  will  be  so  opposed  as  to  prevent  the  tearing  and  dis- 
torting of  tender  plants,  and  fowls  may  be  more  easily  kept  out. 
The  height  of  walls  for  training  fruit  trees,  generally  approved, 
is  from  ten  to  twelve  feet ; but  it  is  more  commonly  determined 
by  the  size  and  form  of  the  garden,  and  the  inclination  of  its 
surface.  “ Many  low  walls,  or  stout  ranges  of  paling,”  Aber- 
crombie observes,  “ will  produce  a greater  total  effect,  in  accel- 
erating fruit,  than  the  same  expenditure  in  high  walls.”  “ Fruit 
walls,  five  or  six  feet  high,  Hitt  remarks,  “ will  do  very  well  for 
peaches,  cherries,  vines,  and  figs ; but  he  would  not  advise  the 
planting  of  apricots,  plums,  or  pears,  on  such  walls,  they 
requiring  more  room,  and  to  stand  longer  before  they  bear. 
Garden  walls  have  been  colored  white  or  black,  and  the  latter 
color  is  justly  preferred  as  absorbing  and  refracting  more  heat 
than  any  other,  and  thereby  accelerating  the  maturity,  and  im- 
proving the  quality  of  fruits.” 

A copious  supply  of  water  is  very  essential  to  a good  kitchen 
garden.  Loudon  remarks,  that  “ Many  kitchen  crops  are  lost, 
or  produced  of  very  inferior  quality,  for  want  of  watering. 
Lettuces  and  cabbages  are  often  hard  and  stringy  ; turnips  and 
radishes  do  not  swell ; onions  decay ; cauliflowers  die  off ; and, 
in  general,  in  dry  seasons,  all  the  crucifer ece  become  stinted  or 
covered  with  insects,  even  in  rich,  deep  soils.  Copious  waterings 
in  the  evenings,  during  the  dry  seasons,  would  produce  that 
fullness  and  succulency  which  we  find  in  the  vegetables  produced 
in  the  Low  Countries,  and  in  the  Marsh  Gardens  at  Paris,  and 
in  England  at  the  beginning  and  latter  end  of  the  season. 

Vegetables  that  are  newly  transplanted,  as  they  have  their 
roots  more  or  less  diminished,  or  otherwise  injured,  often  need 
watering,  until  they  have  taken  new  root.  But  this  should  be 
done  with  caution.  If  a dry  season  follow  the  transplanting,  let 
them  be  watered,  if  they  appear  to  droop,  only  at  evenings,  and 


VllI  INTRODUCTION. 

in  cloudy  weather,  and  with  water  which  has  been  exposed,  one 
day  at  least,  to  the  shining  of  the  sun ; not  with  water  directly 
from  a well,  or  a cold  spring,  as  it  will  give  a chill  to  the  plants. 
Only  a small  quantity  should  be  applied  at  once,  that  it  may 
have  an  effect  similar  to  that  of  a refreshing  rain ; for  water, 
applied  too  plentifully,  sometimes  washes  away  the  finest  of  the 
mould  from  the  roots,  or  makes  little  cavities  about  them,  which 
admit  too  much  air. 


CONTENTS 


Artichoke, 

Asparagus, 

Balm, 

Beans,  . . 

Beet, 

Bene  Plant,  . . 
Borecole,  . . 
Broccoli, 

Brussels  Sprouts,  . 
Cabbage, 

Calendarial  Index, 
Caraway, 

Cardoon,  . . 
Carrot, 
Cauliflower, 
Celery, 

Chamomile, 

Chive,  . . 
Coriander, 

Cress,  Garden, 
Cress,  Water, 
Cucumber, 
Dandelion, 

Egg  Plant, 

Endive, 

Fennel, 

Leek, 

Lettuce, 

Melon, 


Mint, 

ef 

Mushroom, 

# . 

69 

Mustard,  . . 

• • • • 

70 

Onion, 

, . 

72 

Oyster  Plant, 

• • • • 

99 

Parsley, 

. . 

78 

Parsnep,  . . 

• • 

79 

Peas,  . . 

, , 

82 

Pepper,  Red, 

• • • • 

86 

Potato, 
Pumpkin,  .. 

, , 

87 

• • • • 

94 

Radish, 

, , 

95 

Rhubarb,  .. 

• • • • 

97 

Rue,  . . . . 

, , 

98 

Sage, 

• • 

99 

Salsify,  or  Oyster  Plant, 

99 

Savory, 

Sea-Kale, 

• • • • 

100 

. . 

101 

Skirret, 

• • • • 

102 

Spinach,  or  Spinage, 

103 

Squash, 

• • • • 

104 

Strawberry,  . . 

, . 

105 

Sunflower, 

• • • • 

108 

Tansy, 

, , 

108 

Tarragon, 

• • • • 

109 

Thyme,  . . 

. . 

109 

Tomato,  • . 

• • • • 

110 

Turnip, 

. . 

111 

Page 

11 

14 

16 

17 

22 

25 

26 

27 

29 

30 

113 

37 

37 

38 

41 

43 

45 

45 

46 

48 

46 

49 

57 

57 

58 

59 

60 

61 

63 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


ARTICHOKE. 

Cynara  Scolymus . — Artichaut , Fr. — Artischolce , Ger, 

There  are,  according  to  Loudon,  three  varieties  cultivated— Conical, 
French,  or  oval  artichoke,  with  green  head.  The  head  is  oval,  the  scales 
open,  and  not  turned  in  at  the  top,  as  in  the  globe  sort. — Globe,  or  largest, 
with  dusky,  purplish  head.  The  scales  are  turned  in  at  top,  and  the  recep- 
tacle more  succulent  than  the  other. — The  dwarfish  globe,  a prolific  variety, 
and  valuable  as  occupying  little  room  with  its  head.  The  globe  kind  is  the 
only  one  usually  cultivated  in  this  country. 

In  making  new  plantations,  select  deep,  rich,  light  loam,  not  liable  to  re- 
tain much  wet  in  winter,  nor  to  be  very  dry  in  summer.  Let  it  have  a 
gentle  slope,  sufficient  to  carry  off  any  moisture  that  might  lodge  in  the 
trenches  between  the  rows,  for  that  is  more  injurious  to  the  roots  in  winter 
than  the  severest  frost.  Lay  on  a good  quantity  of  rotten  dung,  and  trench 
the  ground  eighteen  inches  deep,  incorporating  the  manure  well  therewith, 
and  thoroughly  pulverizing  the  ground  in  digging;  then  proceed  to  slip  off 
the  young  shoots  from  the  mother  stools,  with  all  the  roots  and  fibers  they 
may  have  thrown  out,  and  close  the  earth  about  the  remaining  shoots. 
These  being  provided,  pull  off  any  loose  hanging  leaves,  and  trim  the  fibers ; 
then  plant  them  with  a dibble  about  four  or  five  inches  deep,  in  rows  five 
feet  asunder,  and  two  feet  apart  in  the  row,  leaving  part  of  their  green  tops 
above  ground,  and  the  hearts  of  the  plants  free  from  any  earth  over  them; 
be  careful  also  to  give  each  plant  a little  w’ater  to  settle  the  earth  about  its 
roots. 

Or,  if  you  have  seedling  year  old  plants  in  a seed  bed,  you  may  take 
them  up,  and  after  shortening  the  tap  roots  a little,  and  dressing  their  leaves, 
plant  them  as  above. 

Subsequent  culture. — u All  spring  and  summer  keep  them  clear  from  weeds, 
by  occasionally  hoeing  between  the  plants;  this,  vvith  regular  waterings  in 


12 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


the  dry  weather  of  summer,  is  all  the  culture  which  they  require,  till  the 
season  of  production  has  terminated.  They  will  produce  some  tolerable 
heads  the  same  year  in  August,  and  thence  till  November;  next  year  they 
will  head  sooner  in  full  perfection.  By  having  fresh  stools  planted  every 
year  or  two,  the  old  and  new  plantations  together  furnish  a production  of 
heads  from  June  or  July  till  November.  Besides  the  main  head,  several 
smaller  lateral  heads  generally  spring  from  the  sides  of  the  stem  in  succes- 
sion ; but,  in  order  to  encourage  the  principal  head  to  attain  the  full  size, 
most  of  the  side  suckers  should  be  detached  in  young  growths,  when  their 
heads  are  the  size  of  a large  egg,  which  in  that  state  are  also  prepared  for 
some  tables.  As  to  the  continuing  main  heads,  permit  them  to  have  full 
growth  till  the  scales  begin  to  diverge  considerably,  but  gather  them  before 
the  flowers  appear,  cutting  to  each  head  a part  of  the  stalk.  When  the  en- 
tire crop  on  a stem  is  taken,  cut  off  the  stem  close  to  the  ground,  to  give  the 
plant  more  strength  for  new  shoots.” — Abercrombie.  “To  encourage  the 
production  of  large  main  heads,  some  detach  all  the  lateral  heads  in  a young 
state.  These  are  commonly  in  a fit  state  for  eating  raw,  having  attained 
about  one  third  of  their  proper  size ; and  they  are  for  this  purpose  frequently 
sold  in  Covent  Garden  market,  chiefly  to  foreigners.  Another  thing  prac- 
ticed, with  the  same  view,  is  the  shortening  the  ends  of  the  large  leaves.77 — 
Neill,  in  Ed.  Encyc. 

Winter  dressing. — Abercrombie  says,  “ First  cut  down  all  the  large  leaves, 
but  without  hurting  the  small  central  ones,  or  the  new  shoots.  Then  dig 
the  ground  between  and  along  each  row ; raising  it  gradually  from  both 
sides,  ridgeways,  over  the  roots,  and  close  about  the  plants.  In  rigorous 
frosty  weather,  cover  also  in  the  litter,  and  close  about  each  plant.77  Arm- 
strong remarks,  that  u various  means  have  been  employed  for  preserving 
the  outstanding  plants  during  the  winter.  That  which  is  most  commonly 
used  is,  after  stripping  off  the  dead  or  decaying  leaves,  and  trimming  down 
the  sound  ones  to  three  or  four  inches,  to  open  trenches  around  the  plant, 
and  to  draw  about  it  the  earth  furnished  by  these.  This  is  again  covered 
with  long  dung  or  stable  litter,  so  as  entirely  to  exclude  rain,  and  snow,  and 
frost.  But,  in  making  these  provisions  against  cold  and  wet  weather,  we 
must  not  forget  that  it  is  possible  to  be  careful  overmuch;  for  if  the  mounds 
of  earth  and  litter  be  large  and  close,  we  expose  our  plants  to  suffocation 
from  want  of  air ; to  exhaustion  from  a continued  vegetation,  and  to  scorch- 
ing from  the  fermentation  of  the  covering  matter,  which,  if  the  weather  be 
wet,  and  but  occasionally  warm,  seldom  fails  to  occur. 

“ To  obviate  these  difficulties,  it  has  been  proposed  that  the  mounds  be 
gradually  formed ; that  the  first  covering  be  merely  a wrapping  of  long 
dung,  and  that  the  additions  made  to  it  be  conformed  to  the  weather,  leav- 
ing openings  in  all  cases,  on  its  southern  side,  for  the  purposes  of  ventila- 
tion, and  in  no  case  to  permit  the  covering  to  exceed  two  feet  in  thickness. 


ARTICHOKE. 


13 


Bat  even  this  mode  of  treatment  is  not  free  from  objection ; for,  first,  the 
direct  application  of  the  dung  to  the  plant  will  always  alter  its  flavor,  and 
very  much  degrade  it ; and,  again,  the  capriciousness  of  the  weather  does 
not  generally  give  either  warning  of  its  changes,  or  time  to  accommodate 
ourselves  to  them  ; they  often  take  place  in  the  night,  and  often  (whether 
in  the  night  or  in  the  day)  under  circumstances  which  prevent  us  from 
giving  the  plant  the  additional  covering  it  may  require.  Two  other  methods, 
therefore,  not  dissimilar  in  themselves,  have  been  suggested — the  one  to 
employ  hollow  cylinders  of  earthenware,  covered  with  a tile  or  piece  of 
slate,  and  of  capacity  sufficient  to  embrace  the  plant ; the  other  to  form  caps 
of  straw  (such  as  are  used  for  lodging  bees),  and  having  a movable  top  of 
the  same  material.  To  the  last  method  we  see  no  room  for  objection ; in 
application  it  is  easy,  requiring  no  skill  and  but  little  labor,  while  the  mate- 
rial and  workmanship  are  both  cheap  and  durable,  and  their  property  of  ex- 
cluding rain,  snow  and  frost  not  to  be  doubted.” 

Spring  dressing. — u In  spring,  the  litter  and  earth  being  removed  in  March 
or  April  (April  or  May  in  this  country),  according  to  the  season,  the  stocks 
are  examined ; and  two  or  three  of  the  strongest  or  best  shoots  being  se- 
lected for  growing,  the  rest  are  removed  by  pressure  with  the  thumb,  or  by 
a knife  or  wooden  chisel.  These  shoots,  or  suckers,  are  used  for  new  plan- 
tations. Dig  the  whole  ground  level,  loosening  it  to  the  crown  of  the  roots 
of  every  plant.” — Loudon. 

Duration  of  the  plants. — “Artichoke  plants  continue  productive  for  several 
years ; but,  every  season,  some  well  rotted  dung,  or  fresh  sea- weed,  should 
be  delved  into  the  ground  at  the  winter  dressing.  It  is  certain,  however, 
that  after  a few  years  the  plants  begin  to  degenerate,  the  heads  becoming 
smaller  and  less  succulent.  It  is  therefore  a general  rule  not  to  keep  an 
artichoke  plantation  beyond  four  or,  at  most,  six  years.  Scarcely  any  kind 
of  grub  or  wire-worm  ever  touches  the  roots  of  artichokes;  they  form, 
therefore,  an  excellent  preparative  for  a crop  of  onions,  shallot  or  garlic.  In 
many  gardens,  a small  new  plantation  is  formed  every  year;  and  in  this  way 
the  artichoke  season,  which  begins  in  June,  is  prolonged  till  November; 
those  from  the  old  stock  continuing  till  August,  when  those  from  the  new 
stocks  come  in.  If  the  last  gathered  be  cut  with  the  stems  at  full  length, 
and  if  these  be  stuck  among  moist  sand,  the  heads  may  be  preserved  a month 
longer. 

Seed. — 44  The  heads,  when  suffered  to  remain  ten  days  or  a fortnight  after 
the  season  of  cutting,  expand  the  calix  leaves,  and  display  an  aggregation 
of  jagged  purple  florets,  producing  a fine  appearance.  When  ripe  seed  is 
wanted,  those  heads  in  flower  are  to  be  bent  down,  and  retained  in  that 
position,  so  that  the  calix  may  throw  off  the  autumnal  rains.  In  general, 
however,  the  seed  is  not  perfected  in  our  [the  British]  climate.” — Loudon . 
Armstrong  says, 41  Every  gardener  who  understands  his  trade  will  take  care 


14 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


to  set  apart  a few  of  the  finest  heads  of  his  own  crop  for  seed ; but  as  the 
stock  is  upright,  and  the  head  so  formed  as  to  receive  and  hold  water,  it 
often  happens  that  the  seeds  rot.  To  prevent  this,  the  stems  of  the  plants 
so  set  apart  should  be  tied  to  stakes  driven  into  the  ground  near  them,  and 
gradually  bent,  so  as  to  give  to  the  heads  that  degree  of  declination  that  will 
be  sufficient  to  carry  off  the  water  that  may  fall  upon  them.5’ 

Use. — In  England,  the  full  heads  only  are  eaten,  always  boiled.  In  Italy, 
they  eat  the  young  heads  raw,  with  oil,  salt  and  pepper.  The  stalks  ire 
eaten  in  France  and  Germany,  boiled  and  seasoned  with  butter  and  vinegar. 
The  flowers  have  the  property  of  rennet,  and  have  sometimes  been  used  as 
a substitute  for  that  article. 


ASPARAGUS. 

Asparagus  Officinalis. — Aspcrgc , Fr. — Spar  gel , Ger. 

Sail. — Asparagus  ground  should  be  light,  yet  rich : a sandy  loam,  well 
mixed  with  rotten  dung  or  sea- weed,  is  recommended. 

Preparation. — A good  quantity  of  dung  trenched  twelve  or  fifteen  inches 
below  the  surface. 

Propagation. — It  is  best  to  raise  this  plant  from  seeds,  although  the  sprouts 
from  seeds  will  not  be  fit  to  cut  so  soon  by  a year  as  from  the  roots.  The 
seeds  should  be  dead  ripe  when  gathered,  and  taken  from  the  strongest  and 
most  compact  shoots. 

Quantity  of  seeds  or  roots. — If  sown  to  transplant,  for  a bed  four  feet  and  a 
half  wide  by  six  feet  in  length,  one  quart  of  seed  will  be  requisite.  If  sown 
to  remain,  for  a bed  four  feet  and  a half  wide  by  thirty  feet  in  length,  one 
pint  is  necessary.  If  plants  a year  old  are  wanted  for  a plantation,  then  for 
a bed  four  feet  and  a half  wide  by  thirty  feet  in  length,  to  contain  four  rows 
of  plants  nine  inches  distant  in  the  row,  one  hundred  and  sixty  plants  will 
be  requisite.  The  seeds  may  be  sown  as  early  as  the  season  will  permit  in 
the  spring,  or  (according  to  Cobbett)  “three  weeks,  or  about,  before  the 
frost  sets  in ” in  the  fall — and  u press  the  earth  well  down  about  the  seed ; 
and,  as  soon  as  the  frost  sets  in,  but  not  before,  cover  the  ground  with  muck 
or  litter  a foot  deep,  and  lay  some  boards  or  poles  to  prevent  its  blowing  off. 
As  soon  as  the  frost  breaks  up  in  the  spring,  take  off'  the  litter,  and  you  will 
Save  the  plants  quickly  up.” 

Progressive  culture. — In  the  month  of  March  or  April,  (during  the  whole 
existence  of  the  plant.)  the  beds  must  be  carefully  forked  and  dressed,  and 
kept  clear  of  weeds.  Occasional  waterings  are  necessary,  till  the  third  or 
fourth  year,  when  the  plants  will  be  sufficiently  established  to  do  without 


ASPARAGUS. 


15 


them.  Permit  the  entire  crop  the  first  two  years,  and  the  greater  part  of  it 
the  third  year,  to  run  up  to  stalks.  It  is  a common  practice  to  sow  onions, 
lettuce,  &c.  the  first  two  years.  Mr.  Loudon,  however,  says,  “the  advan- 
tage of  this  practice  is  questionable  ; and,  at  all  events,  it  should  not  be  con- 
tinued after  the  plants  are  in  full  bearing.” 

Time  of  cutting. — “ If  you  plant  roots,  the  shoots  may  be  cut  the  second 
year  after:  if  seeds,  they  will  not  be  fit  to  cut  till  the  third  year.  All  the 
shoots,  which  come  up  before  the  middle  of  June,  may  be  cut  off  without 
injuring  the  roots ; after  which  time,  the  late  shoots  should  be  left  to  run  up, 
and  go  to  seed  ; otherwise  the  roots  will  be  weakened.” — Deane. 

Cutting  and  gathering. — “ In  new  plantations,  be  careful  not  to  begin  cut- 
ting till  the  stools  have  become  mature,  or  the  third  or  fourth  year.  Like- 
wise observe,  both  in  old  and  new  beds,  to  gather  all  the  produce  in  a regu- 
lar, successive  order,  within  the  proper  limits  of  the  season.  As  the  rising 
shoots  project  two,  three,  four  or  five  inches,  at  most,  above  the  ground, 
while  the  top  bud  remains  close  and  plump,  they  are  in  the  best  condition 
for  gathering.  Cut  them  off  within  the  ground,  with  a narrow,  sharp-point- 
ed knife,  or  small  saw,  nine  inches  long;  thrusting  the  knife  or  saw  down 
straight,  close  to  each  shoot  separately,  cut  it  off  slantingly,  about  three 
inches  below  the  surface,  with  care  not  to  wound  the  young  buds  advancing 
below.  Observe  in  a new  plantation,  in  the  first  year’s  gathering,  if  the 
shoots  come  up  of  irregular  sizes,  to  cut  only  some  of  the  larger  for  a fort- 
night, or  three  or  four  weeks,  and  then  permit  the  whole  to  run;  but  other- 
wise when  in  strong  production,  gather  all  as  they  come,  two  or  three  times 
a week,  or  as  required  during  the  season,  till  the  21st  of  June  ; then,  at 
furthest,  terminate  the  cutting,  and  permit  the  after-shoots  to  run  up  in  stalk 
till  October.  If,  from  a particular  inducement,  you  cut  later  than  the  21st 
of  June,  be  careful  to  leave  two  or  more  shoots  to  each  stool,  in  order  to 
draw  nourishment  to  it ; for  the  stools  left  without  growing  shoots  will  per- 
ish ; and,  by  negligence  in  this  respect,  many  vacuities  or  unproductive  spots 
are  left  in  beds.” 

Shaker  method. — “ Beds  should  be  made  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  clear  from 
frost — the  first  part  of  April,  in  ordinary  seasons.  The  ground  must  be  well 
worked  to  the  depth  of  a spade  blade,  and  intimately  mixed  with  rotted 
horse-manure.  The  seeds  should  then  be  sowed  in  rows  or  drills,  twenty 
inches  apart,  and  one  inch  deep,  the  rows  crosswise  of  the  beds.  They 
should  be  raked  in  lengthwise  of  the  rows. 

11  Asparagus  will  be  large  enough  to  begin  to  cut  the  third  spring  after  it 
is  sowed.  It  may  be  cut  until  the  20th  June  every  year  afterwards.  As 
soon  as  the  cutting  season  is  over,  hoe  it  over  lightly,  so  as  to  loosen  the  soil 
and  make  the  surface  even.  Every  other  year,  spread  on  each  bed  an  inch 
layer  of  good  yard-manure  before  hoeing.  The  tops  will  now  grow  to  a 
great  size,  and  mostly  seed  well.  Early  in  the  spring,  cut  the  dry  tops  close 


16 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


to  the  ground,  lay  them  evenly  on  the  beds,  and  burn  them  there.  Then 
hoe  the  beds  over,  and  rake  them  again.  They  are  then  prepared  for  a new 
growth. 

“ Most  of  the  English  books  recommend  breaking  up  old  asparagus  beds 
once  in  a certain  number  of  years.  Some  of  the  Shakers7  beds  have  been 
cut  twenty-five  years,  and  under  that  course  of  treatment  are  as  good  as  they 
ever  were.77 


BALM. 

Melissa  officinalis. — Baumc , Fr. 

“The  balm  is  a hardy  perennial,  with  square  stems,  which  rise  two  feet 
high  or  more,  furnished  with  large  ovate  leaves,  growing  by  pairs  at  each 
joint.  It  is  a native  of  Switzerland  and  the  south  of  France,  produces  flow- 
ers of  a purplish  color  from  June  to  October.77  There  is  a variety  with 
hairy  leaves. 

Propagation. — u It  is  readily  propagated  by  parting  the  roots,  preserving 
two  or  three  buds  to  each  piece,  or  by  slips,  either  in  autumn  or  spring.77 — 
Loudon. 

Culture. — u Plant  the  slips  or  sets  in  any  bed  of  common  earth,  by  dibble 
or  trowel,  and  from  eight  inches  to  a foot  apart,  giving  water  if  dry  weather. 
Those  of  the  spring  planting  will  soon  grow  freely  for  use  the  same  year ; 
and  afterwards  will  increase  by  the  root  into  large  bunches  of  several  years7 
continuance,  furnishing  annual  supplies  from  March  to  September.77 — Xom- 
don. 

Dried  Balm. — “ Gather  when  coming  into  flower,  and  when  the  leaves 
are  entirely  free  from  dew  or  moisture ; then  dry  rapidly  in  the  shade,  or 
better  in  an  oven  ; and  when  cool  press  the  herbage  into  packages,  and  wrap 
them  up  in  white  paper  till  wanted  for  use.  Keep  the  packages  dry,  and  in 
a close  drawer.77 — Loudon. 

Use. — u Formerly  the  balm  was  held  in  very  high  estimation : Paracelsus 
supposed  it  to  possess  virtues,  by  which  human  life  could  be  prolonged  be- 
yond the  usual  period.  In  modern  times,  however,  the  properties  of  this 
agreeable  plant  are  better  understood  : it  yields,  by  distillation,  a small  pro- 
portion of  an  essential  oil,  of  a yellowish  color,  and  a very  grateful  smell. 
A few  drops  of  this  oil,  diluted  in  a glass  of  simple  water,  or  strong  infusions 
of  the  young  shoots,  drank  as  a tea,  and  continued  for  several  weeks  or 
months,  have  proved  of  service  to  nervous  and  hypochondriacal  patients,  of 
a lax  and  debilitated  habit.  Either  of  these  liquid  preparations,  when 
slightly  acidulated  with  lemon  juice,  acquires  a fine  reddish  colour,  and  may 


BEANS. 


17 


be  taken  with  advantage  in  dry,  parching  fevers,  as  well  as  in  cases  of  dis- 
tressing flatulency,  attended  with  eructations,  where  the  first  passages  have 
previously  been  opened.” — Dom.  Ency.  vol.  i.  p.  127. 


BEANS. 

Pkaseolus. — Haricot , Fr. — SchminJcbohne , Ger. 

There  are  two  distinct  species  of  the  bean,  which  are  often  confounded  by 
writers  on  agricultural  subjects,  to  wit,  vicia  faba , garden  bean,  or  horse 
bean,  and  pkaseolus  vulgaris,  or  kidney  bean.  The  want  of  distinguishing  be- 
tween these  two  different  genera  or  sorts  of  plants,  may  lead  to  erroneous 
practices,  and  consequent  detriment  to  the  cultivator. 

The  vicia  faba , or  garden  bean,  (often  called  English  bean,)  is  an  annual 
plant,  rising  from  two  to  four  feet  high,  with  a thick,  angular  stem,  the 
leaves  divided,  and  without  tendrils ; the  flowers  white,  with  a black  spot 
in  the  middle  of  the  wing ; seed-pods  thick,  long,  woolly  within,  and  in- 
closing the  large  ovate  flatted  seeds,  for  the  sake  of  which  the  plant  is  culti- 
vated in  gardens.  The  following  varieties  are  advertised  for  sale  in  Mr. 
Russell’s  Catalogue,  viz. 

English  dwarfs,  I Green  nonpareil, 

Early  mazagan,  Broad  Windsor. 

Sword  long  pod,  | 

u These  varieties  should  be  planted  as  early  as  practicable  in  April.” 

It  is  said  that  this  kind  of  bean  is  propagated  to  the  best  advantage  in  a 
stiff,  moist  loam,  with  a considerable  proportion  of  clay.  The  following  are 
Mr.  Loudon’s  directions  for  its  culture  : — 

Quantity  of  seeds. — For  early  crops,  one  pint  of  seed  will  be  requisite  for 
every  eighty  feet  of  row ; for  main  crops,  two  quarts  for  every  240  feet  of 
row  ; and  for  late  crops,  nearly  the  same  as  the  early. 

Method  of  sowing. — u Plant  all  the  sorts  in  rows,  two  feet  and  a half  apart, 
for  the  smaller  or  very  early,  or  very  late  kinds ; and  three  feet  for  the 
larger ; the  smaller  beans  two  inches  deep,  and  three  inches  distant  in  the 
row ; the  larger  three  inches  deep,  and  four  inches  distant  in  the  row.” 
Transplanting. — Speechly  constantly  transplants  his  early  bean  crops,  and 
considers  that  this  plant  may  be  as  easily  transplanted  as  cabbage,  or  any 
other  vegetable.  It  is  a practice  with  him  to  plant  beans,  alternately  with 
potatoes,  in  the  same  row  ; the  rows  three  feet  apart,  and  the  potatoes  eight- 
een inches  apart  in  the  row,  so  that  the  beans  are  nine  inches  from  the  pota- 
toes. The  beans  are  transplanted,  by  which  means  they  have  the  start  and 


18 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


advantage  of  the  potatoes  and  weeds,  and,  as  they  come  in  early,  may  be 
gathered  before  they  can  possibly  incommode  or  injure  the  potatoes. 

Manual  process. — The  work  of  sowing  is  most  generally  effected  by  a 
dibble,  having  a thick,  blunt  end,  to  make  a wide  aperture  for  each  bean, 
to  admit  it  clear  to  the  bottom,  without  any  narrow,  hollow  parts  below 
strike  the  earth  fully  and  regularly  into  the  holes  over  the  inserted  beans. 
Or  the  planting  may  be  performed,  occasionally,  in  drills  drawn  with  a hoe 
the  proper  depth  and  distance  as  above : place  the  beans  at  intervals  along 
the  bottom  of  each  drill,  and  earth  them  over  evenly;  which  method, 
though  suitable  to  any  kinds,  may  be  more  particularly  adopted  in  sowing 
the  early  and  other  small  sorts. 

Soaking  seed  in  summer. — In  planting  late  crops  in  June  or  July,  if  the 
weather  be  dry,  it  is  eligible  to  give  the  beans  a previous  soaking  for  several 
hours  in  soft  water;  or,  if  they  are  to  be  sown  in  drills,  wuter  the  drills  be- 
forehand ; then  directly  put  in  the  beans,  and  earth  them  in  while  the 
ground  remains  moist. 

Subsequent  culture. — “ As  the  plants  come  up,  and  advance  from  four  to 
six  inches  high,  hoe  up  some  earth  to  the  stems  on  both  sides  of  each  row, 
cutting  down  all  weeds.  Repeat  the  hoeing  as  future  weeds  arise,  both  to 
keep  the  ground  about  the  plants  clean,  and  to  loosen  the  earth  to  encourage 
their  growth.  In  earthing  up,  great  care  must  be  taken  that  the  earth  does 
not  fall  on  the  center  of  the  plant,  so  as  to  bury  it ; for  this  occasions  it  to 
rot  or  fail.  After  earthing  up,  stir  between  the  rows  with  a three-pronged 
fork.  As  the  different  crops  come  into  full  blossom,  pinch  or  cut  off  the 
tops,  in  order  to  promote  their  fruiting  sooner  in  a more  plentiful  production 
of  well-filled  pods.” — Abercrombie. 

Nicol  says,  “ Topping  is  unnecessary  for  any  but  the  early  crops ; being 
practiced  to  render  them  more  early.”  Mr.  Armstrong  is  of  opinion,  that 
“ of  this  practice,  and  of  the  theory  on  which  it  is  founded,  we  may  be  per- 
mitted to  doubt,  because  it  does  not  appear  to  follow  that,  when  the  growth 
of  a plant  is  checked  or  suspended  in  one  direction,  it  will  not  exert  itself 
in  another  as  injuriously  to  the  crop  as  any  increased  length  of  stem  would 
have  done.  Every  day’s  experience  shows,  that,  if  we  pollard  an  apple- 
tree,  we  indeed  stop  its  growth  upward ; but  that,  instead  of  sending  its 
surplus  juices  to  the  support  and  enlargement  of  the  fruit,  (as  this  practice 
supposes,)  it  hastens  to  throw  out  lateral  stems  or  suckers,  W'hich  give  no 
fruit  whatever.  Our  creed,  therefore,  is,  that,  in  the  vegetable  economy, 
certain  juices  go  to  the  production  of  the  stem,  and  certain  others,  more 
elaborated,  and  of  a different  quality,  to  that  of  flowers  and  fruits,  and  that, 
whether  desirable  or  not,  the  art  of  giving  to  either  a destination  different 
from  what  nature  intended,  is  yet  to  be  discovered.” 

Gathering. — For  table  use,  gather  only  such  as  are  tender,  the  seeds  decreas- 
ing in  delicacy  after  they  obtain  about  half  the  size  which  they  should  possess 


BEANS.  19 

at  maturity.  When  they  become  black-eyed,  they  are  tough  and  strong 
tasted,  and  much  inferior. 

To  save  seed. — “ Either  plant  some  of  the  approved  sorts  early  in  the 
spring,  wholly  for  that  purpose,  or  leave  rows  of  the  different  crops  un- 
gathered, in  preference  to  the  gleaning  of  gathered  crops.  The  pods  will 
ripen  in  August,  becoming  brown  and  dry,  and  the  beans  dry  and  hard  ; 
then,  pulling  up  the  stalks,  place  them  in  the  sun  to  harden  the  seed  tho- 
roughly, after  which  thresh  out  each  sort  separately.” — Abercrombie. 

Use. — Mr.  Cobbett  says,  “ In  England  there  are  some  sorts  of  this  bean 
used  for  horses  and  hogs  ; but  there  are  several  sorts  used  as  human  food. 
It  is  at  best  a coarse  and  not  very  wholesome  vegetable,  yet  some  people 
like  it.  It  is  very  much  eaten  by  the  country  people,  in  England,  with 
their  bacon,  along  with  which  it  is  boiled.”  Bean  flour,  as  Dr.  Darwin  ob- 
served, is  probably  more  nutritive  than  that  of  oats,  which  appears  by  its 
effect  in  fattening  hogs ; and,  from  the  relative  prices  of  these  articles,  he 
was  of  opinion,  that  peas  and  beans,  in  general,  supply  a cheaper  provender 
for  horses  and  other  animals.  But  as  the  flour  of  beans  and  peas  is  more 
oily  than  that  of  oats,  it  must  be  more  difficult  of  digestion.  Hence,  when 
a horse  has  been  fed  with  pulse,  he  will  be  less  active  for  an  hour  or  two 
afterwards,  than  if  he  had  eaten  oats.  It  will,  therefore,  be  advisable  to 
mix  pollard  or  straw,  finely  cut,  with  peas  and  beans,  before  giving  to  cattle. 

Bean,  Kidney. — This  plant  and  its  uses  are  too  well  known  to  require 
any  description.  The  sorts  mentioned  in  Russell’s  Catalogue,  are  Kidney 
dwarfs , or  string : — early  yellow  cranberry  ; early  Mohawk,  (which  will 
bear  a smart  frost  without  injury  ;)  early  yellow  six  weeks  ; early  Cana- 
dian dwarf;  early  dwarf  cluster  5 early  dun  colored,  or  Quaker;  early 
China  dwarf;  large  white  kidney  dwrarf;  white  cranberry  dwarf;  red 
cranberry  dwarf ; Warrington,  or  marrow  ; refugee,  or  thousand  to  one ; 
Rob  Roy  ; white  cutlass  bean  of  Carolina.  Pole  or  running  beans : — large 
white  Lima;  saba  or  Carolina;  scarlet  runners;  white  Dutch  runners; 
Dutch  case-knife,  or  princess ; red  cranberry;  white  cranberry;  (the  three 
last  mentioned  string  beans  ;)  asparagus,  or  yard  long,  dolichos  sesquipedalis. 

The  following  directions  for  the  culture  of  the  bean  in  gardens  are  from 
McMahon  : “ Towards  the  latter  end  of  April,  [or  the  fore  part  of  May  in 
New  England,]  you  may  plant  a first  crop  of  kidney-beans  in  the  open 
ground.  Select  a warm,  dry  and  favorably  situated  spot,  and,  having  dug 
and  manured  it  properly,  draw  drills  an  inch  deep,  and  two  feet  or  thirty 
inches  asunder,  drop  the  beans  therein  twro  inches  apart,  and  draw  the 
earth  equally  over  them  ; do  not  cover  them  more  than  an  inch  deep ; 
for  at  this  early  time  they  are  liable  to  rot,  if  cold  or  wet  ensue.  The 
kinds  proper  to  be  sown  now  are,  the  early  cream-colored,  speckled,  yellow 
and  white  dwarfs.” 

Loudon  gives  the  following  directions  for  the  culture  of  runners  or  pole - 


20 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


beans , as  they  are  commonly  called  in  this  country : — The  runner  kidney 
beans  may  be  sown  in  a small  portion  towards  the  end  of  April,  [about  the 
middle  df  May  in  New  England,]  if  tolerably  warm,  dry  weather ; but 
as  these  beans  are  rather  more  tender  than  the  dwarf  sorts,  more  liable  to 
rot  in  the  ground  by  wet  and  cold,  especially  the  scarlets,  the  beginning  or 
middle  of  May  [first  of  June  in  New  England]  will  be  time  enough  to  sow 
a considerable  crop ; and  you  may  sow  a full  crop  about  the  beginning  of 
June.  Allot  principally  the  scarlet  and  large  white  runners.  Some  Dutch 
runners  are  very  eligible  as  a secondary  crop.  The  first  crops  should  have 
the  assistance  of  a south  wall.  Intermediate  crops  may  be  sown  in  any 
open  compartment,  or  against  any  fence  not  looking  north.  The  latest  sown 
will  continue  bearing  longer  under  a good  aspect  and  shelter.  In  sowing, 
draw  drills  about  an  inch  and  a half,  or  not  more  than  two  inches  deep. 
Let  parallel  rows  be  at  least  four  feet  asunder,  to  admit  in  the  intervals  tall 
sticks  or  poles  for  the  plants  to  climb  on.  Place  the  beans  in  the  drills, 
four  inches  apart,  and  earth  them  in  evenly  the  depth  of  the  drills.  A 
row  contiguous  to  a fence  or  building  may  ascend  upon  lines.  Some  may 
be  sown  in  a single  row  along  a border,  or  on  each  side  of  a walk,  and  have 
the  support  of  a slight  trellis  of  laths  and  lines  ; or  they  might  be  arched  over 
with  similar  materials  to  form  a shady  walk  or  bower.  In  a cold,  wet  sea- 
son, or  when  requisite  to  have  a few  plants  more  forward  than  the  general 
crop,  some  scarlets  may  be  sown  in  April,  either  in  a slight  hot-bed,  or  in 
pots,  under  frames  of  hand  glass,  to  raise  and  forward  the  plants,  till  two  or 
three  inches  high  : then,  at  the  end  of  May,  transplant  them  into  the  open 
garden.  As  the  plants  come  up,  and  advance  from  three  to  six  inches  in 
growth,  hoe  some  earth  to  the  stems,  cutting  down  all  weeds.  When  they 
begin  to  send  forth  runners,  place  suitable  supports  to  each  row  ; and  con- 
duct the  tendrils  to  the  sticks  or  lines,  turning  them  in  a contrary  direction 
to,the  sun.  The  ascending  plants  will  soon  come  into  flower,  podding  at 
the  joints,  in  long  succession.  They  are  so  prolific,  that  the  returns  from 
three  sowings,  in  May,  June  and  July,  will  last  from  July  till  October. 

Taking  the  Crop. — Gather  the  pods,  both  from  dwarfs  and  runners,  while 
they  are  young,  fleshy,  brittle  and  tender,  for  then  they  are  in  the  highest 
perfection  for  the  table  ; and  the  plants  will  beai  more  fully,  and  last  longer 
in  fruit,  under  a course  of  clean  gathering. 

To  save  seed. — Either  sow  a portion  for  that  object,  or  leave  rows 
wholly  ungathered,  of  the  main  crop,  or  preserve  a sufficiency  of  good  pods 
promiscuously.  The  beans  saved  should  be  the  first  fruits  of  a crop,  sown 
at  a period  which  throws  the  entire  course  of  growth  into  the  finest  part  of 
summer.  Let  them  hang  on  the  stalks  till  they  ripen  fully,  in  August  and 
September ; then  let  the  haulm  be  pulled  up  and  placed  in  the  sun,  to  dry 
and  harden  the  seed,  which  should  be  afterwards  cleared  out  of  the  husks, 
bagged  up  and  housed. 


BEANS. 


21 


The  pea,  English  bean,  and  kidney  bean,  are  liable  to  the  attacks  of 
various  insects,  especially  the  aphides , [plant  lice,]  in  dry  seasons.  When 
early  crops  are  newly  sown,  or  planted,  mice  will  burrow  for  and  eat  the 
seed,  and  when  it  begins  to  penetrate  the  soil,  it  is  attacked  by  snails,  slugs, 
the  cut  worm,  &c.  The  usual  means  of  guarding  against  the  ravages  of 
insects  must,  therefore,  be  resorted  to  by  the  gardener. 

As  regards  the  field  culture  of  the  bean,  we  would  observe,  that  the  white 
kind,  which  is  most  generally  approved  of  in  New  England,  will  produce 
pretty  good  crops,  on  poor,  sandy,  or  gravelly  soils ; but  when  planted  on 
such  ground,  it  is  good  husbandry  to  wet  and  roll  them  in  plaster  before 
planting.  They  may  be  planted  in  hills  or  drills,  the  rows  two  and  a half 
or  three  feet  apart,  according  to  the  strength  of  the  soil,  and  cultivated  like 
other  hoed  crops.  They  may  be  planted  in  the  latter  end  of  May,  or  be- 
ginning of  June,  or  about  the  time  of  planting  Indian  corn.  If  planted  in 
hills,  they  may  be  placed  from  fourteen  to  twenty-four  inches  apart  in  the 
rows,  and  the  rows  the  distance  before  mentioned.  Five  beans  are  quite 
enough  to  remain  in  a hill.  Hogs’  dung,  mixed  with  ashes,  is  said  to  be 
the  best  manure  for  them,  and  it  is  said  to  be  very  injurious  to  beans  to  hoe 
them  while  the  dew  is  on,  or  in  wet  weather. 

Judge  Buel,  of  Albany,  has  given  the  following  notices  of  some  experi- 
ments in  the  field  culture  of  this  vegetable  : — u Beans  may  be  cultivated  in 
drills  or  in  hills.  They  are  a valuable  crop,  and,  with  good  care,  are  as 
profitable  as  a wheat  crop.  They  leave  the  soil  in  good  tilth.  The  China 
bean,  with  a red  eye,  is  to  be  preferred.  They  ripen  early,  and  are  very 
productive.  I cultivated  beans  the  last  year  in  three  different  ways,  viz., 
in  hills,  in  drills,  and  sowed  broad-cast.  I need  not  describe  the  first,  which 
is  a well-known  process.  I had  an  acre  in  drills,  which  was  the  best  crop 
I ever  saw.  My  management  was  this : — On  an  acre  of  light  ground, 
where  the  clover  had  been  frozen  out  the  preceding  winter,  I spread  eight 
loads  of  long  manure,  and  immediately  plowed  and  harrowed  the  ground. 
Drills  or  furrows  were  then  made  with  a light  plow,  at  the  distance  of 
two  and  a half  feet,  and  the  beans  thrown  along  the  furrows  about  the  25th 
of  May,  by  the  hand,  at  the  rate  of  at  least  a bushel  on  the  acre.  I then 
gauged  a double  mould-board  plow,  which  was  passed  once  between  the  rows, 
and  was  followed  by  a light  one  horse  roller,  which  flattened  the  ridges. 
The  crop  was  twice  cleaned  of  weeds,  by  the  hoe,  but  not  earthed.  The 
product  was  more  than  forty-eight  bushels,  by  actual  measurement. 
The  beans  brought  me  one  dollar  the  bushel  last  fall.  The  third  experiment 
was  likewise  upon  a piece  of  ground  where  the  clover  had  been  killed.  It 
was  plowed  about  the  first  of  Tune,  the  seed  sown  like  peas,  upon  the 
first  furrow,  and  harrowed  in.  The  drought  kept  them  back  ; but  about 
65  rods  of  ground,  on  which  the  experiment  was  made,  gave  a product  of 
twelve  and  a half  bushels.  The  crop  was  too  ripe  when  it  was  harvested, 


22 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


and  as  it  was  cut  with  a scythe,  I estimated  that  about  two  and  a half  bushels 
were  left  upon  the  ground.  No  labor  was  bestowed  upon  them  from  the 
time  they  were  sown  till  they  were  harvested.” 

Forwarding  an  early  crop. — The  kidney  bean  is  often  partially  forced,  in 
hot-houses  or  frarhes,  with  a view  to  the  forwarding  of  its  produce  in  the 
open  garden.  Mr.  Armstrong  says,  “In  the  neighborhood  of  cities,  the 
dwarf  varieties  are  often  cultivated  in  hot-beds,  but  the  product  is  of  a very 
inferior  kind  • for,  of  the  whole  catalogue  of  vegetables,  none  is  more  apt  to 
take  a disagreeable  flavor  from  hot  and  fermenting  dung  (which  is  the  basis 
of  these  beds)  than  the  bean.”  It  is  probable,  however,  that  beans  might 
be  forced  to  advantage,  in  hot-beds,  composed  of  oak  leaves,  tanner’s  bark, 
&c.,  without  deriving  therefrom  the  disagreeable  flavor  complained  of. 


BEET. 


Beta  Vulgaris . — Beterave , Fr. — Rothe  Rube , Ger. 


Among  the  more  common  varieties  of  this  valuable  vegetable  are, 


French  sugar,  or  amber  beet, 
Mangel  wurtzel, 

Green— for  stews  or  soups, 
Yellow  turnip-rooted, 


Early  blood  turnip-rooted, 
Early  dwarf  blood, 

Early  white  scarcity, 
Long  blood  red. 


Sown  from  April  to  June.  The  early  turnip  blood  beet  is  the  earliest, 
and  of  excellent  quality  for  summer  use ; the  tops  being  good  for  boiling  as 
greens.  Mr.  Loudon’s  directions  for  the  general  culture  of  the  beet  are  : — 

11  Seed  and  Soil. — The  beet  is  always  raised  from  seed,  and  for  a bed  four 
feet  and  a half  by  twelve  feet,  one  ounce  is  requisite.  The  soil  in  which  it 
naturally  delights  is  a deep,  rich  sand,  dry  and  light,  rather  than  moist. 
Sowing  in  seed  beds,  and  transplanting  has  been  tried ; but  though  it  may 
answer  for  spinage  or  pot-herb  beets,  [white  and  its  varieties,]  it  will  not 
answer  where  the  object  is  a large  clean  root. 

“ Sowing. — The  beet  is  sown  annually  the  last  week  in  March,  or  begin- 
ning of  April,  [in  the  northern  United  States,  the  main  crop  should  be  de- 
layed till  the  middle  of  May.]  The  ground  on  which  it  is  sown  should 
have  been  previously  enriched  by  mellow  compost  and  sea  sand ; but  rank 
dung  is  not  to  be  laid  in,  as  it  is  apt  to  induce  canker.  For  the  long-rooted 
kind,  trench  to  the  depth  of  eighteen  inches.  Sow  either  broad-cast  on  the 
rough  surface,  and  rake  well  into  the  earth ; or,  as  the  seed  is  large,  sow  in 
drills  an  inch  or  two  deep  and  a foot  asunder ; or  dot  it  in  with  a thick, 
blunt-ended  dibble  in  rows  that  distance,  making  holes  ten  or  twelve  inches 


BEET. 


23 


apart,  about  an  inch  and  a half  deep ; drop  two  or  three  seeds  in  each  hole, 
but  with  the  intention  to  leave  only  one  beet  plant  ” 

Mr.  Mahon  says,  u Make  choice  of  a piece  of  rich,  deep  ground,  lay  it  out 
into  four  feet  wide  beds,  push  the  loose  earth  into  the  alleys,  then  sow  the 
seed  tolerably  thin,  and  cover  it  with  the  earth  out  of  these  alleys  to  about 
three  quarters  of  an  inch  deep.  Or,  let  drills  be  drawn  with  a hoe,  near  an 
inch  deep,  and  a foot  or  a little  better  asunder;  drop  the  seeds  thinly  therein 
and  cover  them  over  the  same  depth  as  above.  Or  you  may  sow  the  seed 
on  a piece  of  ground  rough,  after  being  dug,  and  rake  it  well  in.” 

Subsequent  culture. — When  the  young  plants  are  advanced  into  leaves,  one, 
two,  or  three  inches  in  growth,  they  must  be  thinned  and  cleared  from 
weeds,  especially  those  sown  promiscuously,  or  broad-cast  and  in  drills.  If 
there  be  chasms  in  the  rows,  fill  them  up  with  the  superfluous  plants.  The 
oftener  the  ground  is  stirred  during  the  whole  course  of  the  vegetation 
of  the  plant,  the  larger  will  be  the  product,  and  the  better  its  quality. 

As  soon  as  vegetation  is  over,  which  always  occurs  after  the  first  hard 
frost,  take  up  the  plants,  expose  them  a day  or  two  to  the  air,  to  evaporate 
their  surplus  moisture,  and  then  house  them  carefully.  This  may  be  done 
by  putting  them  in  layers  in  a dry  cellar,  and  interposing  between  these  a 
slight  covering  of  sand.  In  digging  the  roots,  great  care  should  be  taken 
that  they  be  not  broken  or  cut,  as  they  bleed  much.  For  the  same  reason, 
the  leaves  should  be  cut  off  at  least  an  inch  above  the  solid  part  of  the  root. 

To  save  seed. — Either  leave  a few  strong  roots  standing  in  the  rows,  or 
select  a few,  and  transplant  them  to  a spot  where  there  will  be  no  danger, 
when  in  flower,  of  being  impregnated  with  any  other  variety.  They  will 
shoot  up  the  second  year,  when  their  flower-stocks  should  be  tied  to  stakes, 
to  prevent  their  breaking  over. 

Field  culture  of  the  mangel  wurtzel  beet , and  the  sugar  beet. — Soil  and  prep- 
aration— The  soil  for  these  roots  should  be  a loam  inclining  to  clay,  in  good 
tilth,  well  manured,  and  made  fine  to  a good  depth.  John  Hare  Powel, 
Esq.,  corresponding  secretary  to  the  Pennsylvania  Agricultural  Society,  in 
giving  an  account  of  his  mode  of  cultivating  this  crop,  says,  “ My  soil  was 
not  naturally  strong : it  has  been  gradually  so  much  deepened  as  to  enable 
Wood’s  plow,  No.  2,  drawn  by  four  oxen,  to  plow  fourteen  inches  deep. 
Fresh  barn-yard  manure  was  equally  spread  upon  the  surface,  and  plowed 
under  in  the  early  part  of  April,  in  quantities  not  larger  than  are  generally 
used  for  potato  crops  in  this  country.  Early  in  May,  the  land  was  twice 
stirred  with  Beatson’s  scarifier,  harrowed,  rolled;  after  stirred,  harrowed 
and  rolled  again  in  the  opposite  direction  ” The  soil  on  which  Messrs. 
Tristram  Little  and  Henry  Little  of  Newbury,  Mass,  raised  their  premium 
crop  in  1824,  is  a clay  loam.  In  1823,  about  three-fourths  of  the  same  was 
sowed  with  onions,  and  manured  with  about  eight  cords  of  compost  manure 
to  the  acre.  The  other  quarter  was  sowed  with  wheat  without  manure.  In 


24 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


the  fall  of  1823,  there  were  about  ten  cords  of  compost  manure  drawn  on  the 
lot,  and  put  in  a heap.  Most  of  the  said  compost  was  drawn  from  the  salt 
marshes,  when  ditching  the  same ; the  other  part  was  from  the  barn-yard. 
In  the  month  of  April,  1824,  the  heap  was  thrown  over,  and  well  mixed. 

Planting. — Col.  Powel  says,  “ The  holes  for  the  seeds  were  made  by  a 
wheel,  containing  pegs  in  its  circumference,  which  penetrated  the  ground 
about  an  inch,  leaving  intervals  of  four  inches ; the  rows  were  made  2 feet 
asunder ; two  capsules  were  dropped  in  each  hole  ; the  wheel  of  a common 
barrow  was  passed  over  them,  thus  compressing  the  earth,  and  leaving  a 
slight  rut  for  the  retention  of  moisture.” 

Messrs.  Tristram  and  Henry  Little  observe,  that,  u Between  the  8th  and 
11th  of  May,  the  land  was  plowed  and  sowed  in  the  following  manner: — 
After  one  deep  plowing,  the  ground  was  furrowed  two  and  a half  feet 
apart,  and  the  manure  put  into  the  furrows,  and  covered  with  a double 
mould-board  plow ; a roller  was  then  passed  on  the  top  of  the  ridge,  and 
the  seed  dibbled  in  with  the  finger  over  the  manure,  about  six  or  eight 
inches  apart.”  The  quantity  of  seed,  according  to  English  writers,  is  four 
pounds  to  an  acre.  Mr.  David  Little,  in  obtaining  a premium  crop,  sowed 
four  pounds,  but  observed  that  he  thought  half  that  quantity  would  have 
been  sufficient. 

Gathering  and  preserving. — In  gathering  the  roots,  care  should  be  taken  to 
cut  off  the  leaves  about  half  an  inch  above  the  crown,  as  they  will  not  keep 
so  well,  if  cut  more  closely.  Messrs.  Tristram  and  Henry  Little  say,  “ As 
to  the  best  mode  of  preserving  them,  we  have  tried  divers  ways, — by  pitting 
them,  by  putting  them  into  a barn,  and  covering  them  with  hay,  and  by 
putting  them  into  the  cellar;  the  last  mode  we  think  the  best.”  Col. 
Powel  observes,  that  one  of  his  crops  was  “ piled  in  a cellar,  in  rows,  as 
wood,  and  covered  with  sand.”  A writer  in  the  English  Farmers  Journal , 
observes,  that  he  has  practiced,  with  success,  the  following  mode  of  pre- 
serving this  root : — u I pack  it  in  long  heaps,  about  seven  feet  wide  at  the 
bottom.  I begin  by  forming  the  outsides  with  the  roots,  not  stripped  of 
their  tops ; tops  outwards  ; the  internal  parts  to  be  filled  with  roots  without 
leaves ; continue  one  layer  over  another,  until  the  heap  is  about  six  feet 
high,  and  about  two  feet  broad  at  top,  which  may  be  covered  with  straw 
and  earth;  the  ends  of  the  heap  should  be  covered  in  the  same  way;  the 
leaves  form  an  efficient  covering  against  rain  and  frost.” 

Mr.  M‘Mahon’ s mode  of  preserving  beets,  and  other  roots,  is  as  follows  : — 
M Previous  to  the  commencement  of  severe  frost,  you  should  take  up,  with 
as  little  injury  as  possible,  the  roots  of  your  turnips,  carrots,  parsnips,  beets, 
salsify,  scorzonera,  Hamburg  or  large-rooted  parsley,  skirrets,  Jerusalem  ar- 
tichokes, turnip-rooted  celery,  and  a sufficiency  of  horse-radish,  for  the  win- 
ter consumption ; cut  off  their  tops,  and  expose  the  roots  for  a few  hours  till 
sufficiently  dry.  On  the  surface  of  a very  dry  spot  of  ground,  in  a well 


feEET* 


25 


sheltered  situation,  lay  a stratum  of  sand  two  incnes  thick,  and  on  this  a 
layer  of  roots  of  either  sort,  covering  them  with  another  layer  of  sand,  (the 
drier  the  better,)  and  so  continue  layer  about  of  sand  and  roots  till  all  are 
laid  in,  giving  the  whole,  on  every  side,  a roof-like  slope;  then  cover  this 
heap  or  ridge  all  over  with  about  two  inches  of  sand,  over  which  lay  a good 
coat  of  drawn  straw,  up  and  down,  as  if  thatching  a house,  in  order  to  carry 
off  wet,  and  prevent  its  entering  the  roots;  then  dig  a wide  trench  round  the 
heap,  and  cover  the  straw  with  the  earth  so  dug  up,  to  a depth  sufficient  to 
preserve  the  roots  effectually  from  frost.  An  opening  may  be  made  on  the 
south  side  of  this  heap,  and  completely  covered  with  bundles  of  straw,  so  as 
to  have  access  to  the  roots  at  all  times,  when  wanted  either  for  sale  or  use. 

“ Some  people  lay  straw,  or  hay,  between  the  layers  of  roots,  and  imme- 
diately on  the  top  of  them ; this  I do  not  approve  of,  as  the  straw  or  hay 
will  become  damp  and  mouldy,  and  very  often  occasion  the  roots  to  rot, 
while  the  sand  would  preserve  them  sweet  and  sound. 

“ All  these  roots  may  be  preserved  in  like  manner  in  a cellar ; but  in  such 
a place  they  are  subject  to  vegetate  and  become  stringy  earlier  in  spring. 
The  only  advantage  of  this  method  is,  that  in  the  cellar  they  may  be  had 
when  wanted,  more  conveniently  during  winter,  than  out  of  the  field  or 
garden  heaps. 


BENE  PLANT. 

Sesamum. 

This  was  introduced  into  the  Southern  States  by  the  negroes  from  Africa. 
It  abounds  in  many  parts  of  Africa.  Soninni  and  Brown,  travelers  in 
Egypt,  say  it  is  much  cultivated  there  for  the  purpose  of  feeding  horses,  and 
for  culinary  purposes.  The  negroes  in  Georgia  boil  a handful  of  the  seeds 
with  their  allowance  of  Indian  corn.  Probably  no  plant  yields  a larger  pro- 
portion of  oil,  which  Dr.  Cooper  of  Philadelphia  has  pronounced  equal  to  the 
finest  oils.  But  it  is  worthy  of  cultivation  in  the  Northern  States,  princi- 
pally, as  a medicinal  plant.  A gentleman  in  Virginia  has  given  Messrs. 
Thorburn  & Son  the  following  account  of  its  virtues : — u It  requires  to  be 
sown  early  in  April,  at  a distance  of  about  one  foot  apart.  A few  leaves  of 
the  plant,  when  green,  plunged  a few  times  in  a tumbler  of  water,  make  it 
like  a thin  jelly,  without  taste  or  color,  which  children  afflicted  with  the 
summer  complaint  will  drink  freely,  and  it  is  said  to  be  the  best  remedy 
ever  discovered.  It  has  been  supposed,  that  (under  Providence)  the  lives  of 
three  hundred  children  were  saved  by  it  last  summer  in  Baltimore,  and  I 
know  the  efficacy  of  it  by  experience  in  my  own  family.”  This  plant  will 
2 


26 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


throw  out  a great  profusion  of  leaves  by  breaking  off  the  top  when  it  is 
about  half  grown.— Russell1  s Catalogue. 


BORECOLE. 

Brassica  oleracea. — Chou  vert , Fr. — Grime  Kohl , Ger. 

The  Borecole  contains  several  sub-varieties,  the  common  characteristic  of 
all  which  is  an  open  head,  sometimes  large,  of  curled  or  wrinkled  leaves,  and 
a peculiar,  hardy  constitution.  There  are  fourteen  varieties  enumerated  by 
Loudon.  Those  which  he  says  are  the  most  valuable,  are  the  green  bore- 
cole, Scotch  kale,  or  Siberian  borecole,  the  purple  or  brown  kale,  the  Ger- 
man kale,  German  greens,  or  curlies. 

Propagation. — All  the  sorts  are  propagated  by  seed ; and  for  a seed  bed 
four  feet  by  ten,  Abercrombie  says,  one  ounce  of  seed  is  necessary.  M4Mahon 
directs  to  14  sow  towards  the  end  of  March  [about  three  weeks  later  in  New 
England]  a first  crop  of  borecole  for  autumn  service,”  and  observes  : 

11  There  are  two  principal  sorts,  the  green  and  the  brown,  both  very  hardy 
plants,  wdth  tall  stems,  and  full  heads  of  thick  fimbriate,  curled  leaves,  not 
cabbaging,  and  are  desirable  open  greens  for  winter,  &c.  Let  this  seed  be 
sown  in  an  open  exposure,  distant  from  trees,  and  from  close  fences,  as,  in 
such  situations  they  are  apt  to  draw  up  too  fast,  with  long,  weak  stalks  ; 
sow  it  broad-cast,  and  rake  it  in.”  Several  crops  may  be  sown  in  several 
successive  months,  from  the  middle  of  April  to  the  middle  of  September.  In 
dry  weather,  water  the  plants  occasionally,  both  before  and  after  they  are  up. 
“ When  about  three  inches  high,  it  will  be  proper  to  thin  the  seed  bed,  and 
prick  out  a quantity  therefrom,  at  four  inches  distance,  that  the  whole  may 
obtain  proper  strength  for  final  transplanting. 

u When  the  plants  are  set  in  the  places  where  they  are  to  complete  their 
growth,  they  should  be  planted  out  like  cabbages,  at  three  feet  distance 
every  way,  and  afterwards  be  kept  free  from  weeds,  and  the  earth  drawn  to 
their  stems  as  they  advance  in  growth.  Those  intended  for  winter  use 
should  not  be  planted  in  a rich,  fat  loam,  as  there  they  would  become  too 
succulent,  and  consequently  could  not  bear  the  frost  as  well  as  if  growing  on 
a gravelly  soil.  Such  as  are  designed  for  autumn  use,  may  be  planted  in 
any  convenient  bed  that  is  tolerably  rich. 

11  The  green  and  brown  curled  borecole,  being  very  hardy,  will  require 
little  protection  [against  the  cold  of  winter].  In  November  they  may  be 
taken  up,  and  planted  in  a ridge  tolerably  close  together,  and,  during  severe 
frost,  be  covered  lightly  with  straw ; this  will  preserve  them  sufficiently : 
and  during  winter  the  heads  may  be  taken  off  as  they  are  wanted  for  use ; 


/ 


BROCCOLI.  27 

the  stems,  if  taken  up  and  planted  in  rows,  as  early  in  March  as  the  weather 
will  admit,  will  produce  abundance  of  the  most  delicious  sprouts. 

In  the  Southern  States,  and  even  in  warm  soils  and  exposures  in  the 
Middle  States,  borecole  will  stand  the  winter  in  open  beds,  without  any 
covering  whatever.77 — ML Mahon. 

Use. — The  crown  or  center  of  the  plant  is  cut  off,  so  as  to  include  the 
leaves  which  do  not  exceed  nine  inches  in  length.  It  boils  well,  and  is  most 
tender,  sweet  and  delicate,  provided  it  has  been  duly  exposed  to  frost. — 
Loudon. 


BROCCOLI. 

Brassica  olera.cca . — Broccoli , F v.—Italianische  Kohl , Ger, 

There  are  several  varieties  of  broccoli,  which  are  all  merely  late-heading 
varieties  of  the  cauliflower.  Miller  mentions  the  white  and  purple  broccoli, 
as  imported  into  England  from  Italy ; and  it  is  thought  that  from  these  two 
sorts  all  the  subsequent  kinds  have  arisen,  either  by  accidental  or  premedi- 
tated impregnations.  The  kinds  introduced  into  this  country  are,  the  early 
white,  early  purple,  and  large  cape. 

The  seeds  of  broccoli  should  be  sowrn  in  New  England  about  the  latter 
end  of  May,  or  beginning  of  June ; and  when  the  young  plants  have  germin- 
ated eight  leaves,  they  should  be  transplanted  into  beds.  By  this  manage- 
ment, towards  the  latter  end  of  July,  they  will  be  fit  to  be  planted  out  in 
some  well  sheltered  piece  of  ground,  at  the  distance  of  a foot  and  a half  in 
the  rows,  and  two  feet  between  each  row. 

The  soil  proper  for  broccoli  is  rather  light  than  heavy.  MlMahon  says, 
the  early  purple  broccoli,  if  sown  early  in  April,  and  planted  out  as  you  do 
cabbage,  in  good  rich  ground,  will  produce  fine  heads  in  October  or  Novem- 
ber, very  little  inferior  to  cauliflowers,  and,  by  many,  preferred  to  them  : 
the  white  will  not  flower  so  early,  and,  in  the  Middle  and  Eastern  States, 
must  be  taken  up  in  November,  and  managed  as  directed  in  that  month, 
[see  u preserving  cabbages”  &c.  under  the  article  Cabbage,  in  the  following 
pages,]  by  which  a supply  of  this  very  delicious  vegetable  may  be  had,  in 
great  perfection,  during  all  the  winter  and  spring. 

44  In  such  of  the  Southern  States,  as  their  winters  are  not  more  severe  than 
in  England,  they  will  stand  in  the  open  ground,  and  continue  to  produce 
their  fine  flowers,  from  October  to  April.  In  the  Middle,  and  especially  the 
Eastern  States,  if  the  seeds  are  sown  early  in  March  on  a hot-bed,  and  for- 
warded as  is  done  with  cauliflowers  and  early  cabbage  plants,  and  planted 


28 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


out  finally  in  April,  it  would  be  the  most  certain  method  of  obtaining  large 
and  early  flowers.” 

Insects  and  diseases. — “ In  old  gardens,  infested,  as  is  often  the  case,  with 
an  insect  which  in  summer  insinuates  itself  into  the  roots  of  all  the  brassica 
tribe,  and  causes  the  disease  called  the  club , trenching  the  ground  deep  enough 
to  bring  up  four  or  six  inches  of  undisturbed  loam  or  earth,  will  probably 
bury  the  insects  too  deep  for  mischief,  and  provide  fresh  ground  for  the 
benefit  of  the  plants.  In  gardens  much  exhausted  by  reiterated  croppings,  if 
this  mode  cannot  be  adopted,  a good  quantity  of  fresh  loam  from  a common 
field,  dug  in,  would  materially  improve  the  broccoli,  and  be  of  lasting  use  in 
future  crops.  Broccoli,  in  general,  succeeds  best  in  a fresh,  loamy  soil, 
where  it  comes,  I think,  more  true  in  kind,  and  is  hardier  without  dung ; 
but  if  this  situation  cannot  be  had,  deep  digging,  with  plenty  of  manure,  is 
the  only  remaining  alternative  to  produce  good  crops.  I believe  soap  ashes, 
dug  into  the  ground  in  considerable  quantities,  to  be  a good  preservative 
from  the  club ; and  if  the  roots  of  the  plants,  just  previously  to  planting,  are 
dipped  and  stirred  well  about  in  mud  of  soap  ashes  with  water,  its  adherence 
will,  in  a great  measure,  preserve  them  from  attack ; perhaps  a mixture  of 
stronger  ingredients,  such  as  soot,  sulphur,  tobacco,  &c.  would  be  still  bet- 
ter.”— Hort.  Trans,  vol.  iii. — See  Cabbage. 

Wood,  a writer  in  the  Caledonian  Horticultural  Memoir s,  says,  he  paid  a 
considerable  degree  of  attention  to  the  culture  of  broccoli,  and  has  made  con- 
siderable progress  therein.  He  found  that  manuring  with  a compound  of 
sea-weed  and  horse-dung  produced  the  largest  and  finest  heads  he  had  seen 
for  many  years. 

Culture  without  transplanting. — u M‘Leod  grows  cape  broccoli,  in  a very 
superior  manner,  without  transplanting.  In  the  end  of  May,  after  having 
prepared  the  ground,  he  treads  it  firm,  and,  by  the  assistance  of  a line,  sows 
his  seed  in  row's  two  feet  apart,  dropping  three  or  /our  seeds  into  holes  two 
feet  distant  from  each  other  in  the  row.  When  the  seeds  vegetate,  he  de- 
stroys all  except  the  strongest,  which  are  protected  from  the  fly  by  sprink- 
ling a little  soot  over  the  ground  ; as  the  plants  advance  they  are  frequently 
flat  hoed  until  they  bear  their  flowers ; they  are  once  earthed  up,  during 
their  growth.  A specimen  of  broccoli,  thus  grown,  was  exhibited  to  the 
Horticultural  Society ; the  head  was  compact  and  handsome,  measuring  two 
feet  nine  inches  in  circumference,  and  weighing  when  divested  of  its  leaves 
and  stalks,  three  pounds ; the  largest  of  its  leaves  was  upwards  of  two  feet 
long.  M‘Leod  adopts  the  same  mode  m the  cultivation  of  spring-sown  cauli- 
flowers, lettuces,  and  almost  all  other  vegetables,  avoiding  transplanting  as 
much  as  possible.” — Hort.  Trans,  vol.  iv,  p.  559. 

To  save  seed. — Wood,  already  mentioned,  selects  the  largest,  best  formed, 
and  finest  heads,  taking  particular  care  that  no  foliage  appears  on  the  surface 
of  the  heads ; these  he  marks,  and,  in  April,  lays  them  by  the  heels  in  a 


BRUSSELS  SPROUTS. 


29 


compound  of  cleanings  of  old  ditches,  tree  leaves,  and  dung.  When  the  head 
begins  to  open  and  expand,  he  cuts  out  the  center,  leaving  only  four  or  five 
of  the  outside  shoots  to  come  to  seed.  Lifting,  [taking  up,]  he  says,  pre- 
vents them  from  producing  proud  seed,  as  it  is  called,  or  degenerating.— 
Caled.  Hort.  Mem.  vol.  ii.  p.  267.  Abercrombie  says,  broccoli  seeds  degen- 
erate in  this  country,  [England,]  and  that  the  best  seed  is  obtained  from 
Italy. — Loudon.  The  common  directions  are,  in  substance,  as  follows : 

Reserve  a few  of  the  largest  heads  of  the  first  crop,  stripping  constantly 
off  all  under  shoots,  leaving  only  the  main  stem  to  flower  and  seed,  and  tie 
them  to  strong  stakes,  to  prevent  their  being  broken  by  winds  and  heavy 
rain.  Care  should  be  taken  that  no  other  sort  of  cabbage  is  suffered  to  go  to 
seed  near  them. 

Use. — The  same  as  the  Cauliflower,  which  see  in  its  alphabetical  order. 


BRUSSELS  SPROUTS. 

JBrassica  oleracea . — Chou  de  Bruxelles , Fr. — Sprossen  Kohl , Ger. 

The  Brussels  sprouts  produce  an  elongated  stem,  often  four  feet  high,  from 
•which  sprout  out  shoots,  which  form  small  green  heads,  like  cabbages  in 
miniature,  each  being  from  one  to  two  inches  in  diameter,  and  the  whole 
ranged  spirally  along  the  stem,  the  main  leaves  of  which  drop  oft'  early. 
The  top  of  the  plant  resembles  that  of  a Savoy,  planted  late  in  the  season  ; 
it  is  small,  and  with  a green  heart  of  little  value.  Van  Mons  says,  (Hort. 
Trans,  vol.  iii,)  “ If  this  vegetable  be  compared  with  any  other,  which  oc- 
cupies as  little  space,  lasts  as  long,  and  grows  as  well  in  situations  generally 
considered  unfavorable,  such  as  between  rows  of  potatoes,  scarlet  runners, 
or  among  young  trees,  it  must  be  esteemed  superior  in  utility  to  most  others.” 
Nicol  considered  it  deserving  a more  general  culture  in  Scotland. 

Use. — The  sprouts  are  used  as  winter  greens ; and  at  Brussels  they  are 
sometimes  served  at  table  with  a sauce  composed  of  vinegar,  butter  and  nut- 
meg, poured  upon  them  hot,  after  they  have  been  boiled.  The  top,  Van 
Mons  says,  is  very  delicate  when  dressed,  and  quite  different  in  flavor  from 
the  sprouts. 

Culture. — The  plants  are  raised  from  seed,  of  which  an  ounce  may  be 
requisite  for  a seed  bed,  four  feet  by  ten  feet.  Van  Mons,  in  his  paper 
already  referred  to,  says,  u The  seed  is  sown  in  the  spring,  under  a frame,  so 
as  to  bring  the  plants  forward ; they  are  then  transplanted  into  an  open  bor- 
der with  a good  aspect.”  By  thus  beginning  early  and  sowing  successively 
till  late  in  the  season,  he  says,  4:  we  contrive  to  supply  ourselves  in  Belgium 
with  this  delicious  vegetable  full  ten  months  in  the  year;  that  is,  from  the 


80 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


end  of  J uly  to  the  end  of  May.”  The  plants  need  not  be  placed  at  more 
than  eighteen  inches  each  way,  as  the  head  does  not  spread  wide,  and  the 
side  leaves  drop  off.  In  this,  as  in  every  other  respect,  the  culture  is  the 
same  as  that  of  the  borecole. 

Gathering  the  crop. — Morgan  says,  the  sprouts  must  have  some  frost  before 
gathered  j but  this  Van  Mons  assures  us  is  an  erroneous  opinion.  In  Bel- 
gium, the  small  cabbages  are  not  esteemed  if  more  than  half  an  inch  in 
diameter.  It  is  usual  to  cut  off  the  top  about  ten  or  fifteen  days  before 
gathering  from  the  stem.  In  spring,  when  the  sprouts  are  disposed  to  run 
to  flower,  their  growth  is  checked  by  taking  up  the  plants,  and  setting  them 
in  the  ground  in  any  shaded  spot. 

To  save  seed. — Van  Mons  says,  it  is  usual  to  save  seeds  indiscriminately 
from  plants  which  have  and  those  which  have  not  been  topped  ; but  that  he 
intends  to  save  from  the  tops  only,  hoping  thereby  to  improve  the  progeny. 
Whatever  mode  be  adopted,  the  grand  object  is  to  place  the  plants  where 
they  will  be  in  no  danger  of  receiving  the  farina  of  any  other  of  the  brassica 
tribes. — Loudon . 


CABBAGE. 

Brassica  Oleracea. — Chou  Pennine,  Fr. — Weiss  Kopfkohl , Ger. 

The  cabbage  tribe  is  of  all  the  classes  of  cultivated  culinary  vegetables 
the  most  ancient,  as  well  as  the  most  extensive.  The  brassica  oleracea,  being 
extremely  liable  to  sport  or  run  into  varieties  and  monstrosities,  has,  in  the 
course  of  time,  become  the  parent  of  a numerous  race  of  culinary  produc- 
tions, so  very  various  in  their  habit  and  appearance,  that  to  many  it  may  ap- 
pear not  a little  extravagant  to  refer  them  to  the  same  origin.  Besides  the 
different  sorts  of  white  and  red  cabbage  and  Savoys,  which  form  the  leaves 
into  a head,  there  are  various  sorts  of  borecoles , which  grow  with  their 
leaves  loose  in  the  natural  way,  and  there  are  several  kinds  of  cauliflower 
and  broccoli,  which  form  their  stalks  or  flower-buds  into  a head.  All  of 
these,  with  the  turnip-rooted  cabbage  and  the  Brussels  sprouts,  claim  a com- 
mon origin  from  the  single  species  of  brassica  above  mentioned.  Cabbage 
of  some  sort,  White,  in  his  History  of  Selborne,  informs  us,  must  have  been 
known  to  the  Saxons ; for  they  named  the  month  of  February  Sprout  kale. 
Being  a favorite  with  the  Romans,  it  is  probable  that  the  Italian  cabbpge 
would  be  introduced  at  an  early  period  into  South  Britain.  To  the  inha- 
bitants of  the  north  of  Scotland,  cabbages  were  first  made  known  by  the 
soldiers  of  the  enterprising  Cromwell,  when  quartered  at  Inverness. — Edin. 
Ency.  art.  Horticulture. 


CABBAGE. 


31 


Among  the  varieties  of  the  cabbage,  which  have  been  introduced  into  this 
country,  the  following  are  enumerated  in  Mr.  RusselPs  Catalogue  : — 


Soil  and  Situation. — Every  variety  of  cabbage  grows  best  in  a strong,  rich^ 
substantial  soil,  inclining  rather  to  clay  than  sand ; but  will  grow  in  any  soil, 
if  it  be  well  worked,  and  abundantly  manured  with  well  rotted  dung.  But, 
according  to  Loudon,  u The  soil  for  seedlings  should  be  light,  and  excepting 
for  early  sowings,  not  rich.  Where  market  gardeners  raise  great  quantities 
of  seedling  cabbages  to  stand  the  winter,  and  to  be  sold  for  transplanting  in 
the  spring,  they  choose,  in  general,  the  poorest  and  stiffest  land  they  have 
got,  more  especially  in  Scotland,  where  large  autumnal  sowings,  of  winter 
drumhead  and  round  Scotch,  are  annually  made,  and  where  the  stiffness  of 
the  soil  gives  a peculiar  firmness  of  texture  and  hardiness  of  constitution  to 
the  plants,  and  prevents  their  being  thrown  out  of  the  soil  during  the  thaws 
which  succeed  a frosty  winter.  Transplanted  cabbages  require  a rich  mould, 
rather  clayey  than  sandy  ; and,  as  Neill  and  Nicol  observe,  it  can  scarcely  be 
too  much  manured,  as  they  are  an  exhausting  crop.  Autumnal  plantations 
intended  to  stand  the  winter,  should  have  a dry  soil,  well  dug  and  manured 
and  of  a favorable  aspect.  The  cabbage,  whether  in  the  seed-bed  or  final 
plantation,  ever  requires  an  open  situation.  Under  the  drip  of  trees,  or  in 
the  shade,  seedlings  are  drawn  up  weak,  and  grown  crops  are  meager,  worm- 
eaten  and  ill-favored. 

Sowing  cabbage  seed. — M‘Mahon  says,  u The  proper  period  for  sowing 
cabbage  in  the  Middle  States,  to  produce  early  summer  cabbages,  is  between 
the  sixth  and  the  tenth  of  September,  if  intended  to  be  transplanted  into 
frames  in  October,  for  winter  protection,  which  is  the  preferable  method  ; 
but  if  they  are  designed  for  remaining  in  the  seed-beds  till  spring,  the  period 
is  between  the  fifteenth  and  twentieth.  However,  it  will  be  very  proper  to 
make  two  or  three  sowings  within  that  time,  as  it  is  impossible  to  say  whe- 
ther the  fall  may  be  favorable  or  otherwise,  and,  therefore,  the  better  way  is 
to  be  prepared  in  either  case  by  successive  crops. 

u The  consequence  of  having  crops  too  early  is,  that  they  are  subject  to 
run  to  seed  in  the  spring  soon  after  being  planted  out ; and  if  the  seeds  are 


Early  Salisbury  dwarf, 

Early  York, 

Early  Dutch, 

Early  sugarloaf, 

Early  London  Battersea, 

Large  Bergen,  or  great  American, 
Early  emperor, 

Early  Wellington, 

Russian, 

Large  late  drumhead, 

Late  imperial, 


Late  sugarloaf, 

Large  green  glazed, 

Tree,  or  thousand-headed, 

Large  Scotch,  for  cattle , 

Green  globe  Savoy, 

Red  Dutch,  for  pickling, 

Large  cape  Savoy, 

Yellow  Savoy, 

Turnip-rooted,  or  Arabian,  (above  ground,) 
Turnip-rooted,  (below  ground,) 

Chou  de  Milan. 


32 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


sown  too  late,  the  plants  do  not  acquire  sufficient  strength  before  winter  to 
withstand  its  rigor,  without  extraordinary  care.  But  in  either  case  there  is 
a remedy ; that  is,  if  the  plants  are  likely  to  become  too  luxuriant  and 
strong,  transplant  them  once  or  twice  in  October,  and  if  too  backward  and 
weakly,  make  a slight  hot-bed  towards  the  latter  end  of  that  month,  and 
prick  them  out  of  the  seed-bed  thereon ; this  will  forward  them  consider- 
ably.^ 

Mr.  M‘Mahon  thinks  that,  in  the  Eastern  States,  the  fore  part  of  Septem- 
ber will  be  a suitable  time  to  sow  cabbages  intended  to  be  grown  the  suc- 
ceeding summer.  The  seeds  should  be  covered  about  a quarter  of  an  inch 
deep,  and,  if  the  weather  prove  dry,  should  be  watered  occasionally  in  the 
evening  till  they  come  up.  According  to  Abercrombie’s  seed  estimate,  “ for 
a seed-bed  to  raise  the  early  York  and  similar  varieties,  four  feet  wide  by 
twenty  in  length,”  two  ounces  will  be  required ; for  a seed-bed  to  raise  the 
large  sugarloaf,  and  other  luxuriant  growers,  four  feet  by  thirty-six  in 
length,  two  ounces.  The  same  writer  directs  to  u sow  at  three  different  sea- 
sons, that  is,  spring,  summer  and  autumn,  and  cover  from  an  eighth  to  a 
quarter  of  an  inch.  Under  a deficiency  of  winter  standing  young  plants  for 
final  transplanting,  or  in  order  to  have  some  spring  sown  plants  as  forward  as 
possible,  a moderate  portion  of  some  best  early  sorts  may  be  sown  between 
the  middle  of  February  and  the  middle  of  March,  in  a slight  hot-bed  or 
frame,  to  nurture  the  plants  till  the  leaves  are  an  inch  or  two  in  length. 
Then  prick  them  into  intermediate  beds  in  the  open  garden,  there  to  gain 
strength  for  final  transplanting.” 

Planting  in  New  England. — ■“  Some  drop  the  seeds  where  the  cabbages 
are  to  grow.  By  this  they  escape  being  stinted  by  transplanting;  for  win- 
ter cabbages,  the  latter  part  of  May  is  early  enough  to  put  the  seed  into  the 
ground,  whether  the  plants  are  to  be  removed  or  not.  I have  tried  both 
ways,  and  on  the  whole,  I prefer  transplanting  They  are  otherwise  apt  to 
be  too  tall,  and  to  have  crooked  stems.  Covering  plants  with  leaves  is  not 
a good  practice.  They  will  be  much  heated  through  some  sorts  of  leaves, 
the  free  circulation  of  air  about  them  will  be  prevented,  and  their  perspira- 
tion partly  obstructed.  If  a hot  sun  cause  them  to  droop,  a shingle  stuck 
into  the  ground  will  be  sufficient  shelter,  if  it  be  on  the  south  side  of  the 
plants.  I commonly  allow  each  plant  two  shingles,  one  on  the  south-east 
side,  and  one  on  the  south-west,  meeting  at  the  south  corner.” — Deane. 

The  act  of  planting  should  be  performed  carefully.  Holes,  of  sufficient 
depth  and  width,  should  be  dibbled,  for  the  smaller  sorts  of  cabbages  at  the 
distance  of  two  feet  and  a half,  and,  for  the  larger  sort,  of  three  feet  every 
way.  In  these  the  earth  should  be  placed  up  to  the  lower  leaves,  and  the 
earth  brought  closely  about  the  roots,  which  is  best  done  by  pushing  down 
the  dibbler,  at  a small  angle  with  the  plant,  and  then  bringing  it  up  to  it  with 


CABBAGE. 


33 


a jerk.  This  leaves  no  chambering,  (as  gardeners  call  it,)  no  vacancy  between 
the  plant  and  the  soil. 

“The  state  of  the  weather,  when  these  operations  are  performed,  is  not  a 
matter  of  indifference,  and  has  been  a subject  of  controversy ; some  recom- 
mending dry  weather,  others  wet.  As  in  many  other  cases  of  disputation, 
the  truth  lies  between  them — that  is,  moist  weather  is  neither  dry  nor  wet, 
and  is  precisely  that  which  is  best  for  setting  out  cabbages,  or  any  other  ve- 
getable. We  ought  not,  however,  to  wait  long  for  even  this  most  favorable 
state  of  the  atmosphere,  since,  writh  a little  labor,  we  have  the  means  of 
making  up  for  its  absence.7’ — Armstrong. 

“ Dig  the  plants  up,  that  is,  loosen  the  ground  under  them  with  a spade,  to 
prevent  their  being  stripped  too  much  of  their  roots.  The  setting  stick 
should  be  the  upper  part  of  a spade  or  shovel  handle.  The  eye  of  the  spade 
is  the  handle  of  the  stick.  From  the  bottom  of  the  eye,  to  the  point  of  the 
stick,  should  be  about  nine  inches  in  length.  The  stick  should  not  be  taper- 
ing, but  nearly  of  equal  thickness  all  the  way  down  to  within  an  inch  and  a 
half  of  the  point,  where  it  must  be  tapered  off  to  the  point.  If  the  wood  be 
cut  away,  all  round,  to  the  thickness  of  a dollar,  and  iron  put  round  in  its 
stead,  it  makes  a very  complete  tool.  The  iron  becomes  bright,  and  the 
earth  does  not  adhere  to  it  as  it  does  to  wood.  Having  the  plant  in  one 
hand,  and  the  stick  in  the  other,  make  a hole  suitable  to  the  root  that  it  is  to 
receive.  Put  in  the  root  in  such  a way,  that  the  earth,  when  pressed  in,  will 
be  on  a level  with  the  butt-ends  of  the  lower  or  outward  leaves  of  the  plant. 
Let  the  plant  be  rather  higher  than  lower  than  this ; for  care  must  be  taken 
not  to  put  the  plant  so  low  as  for  the  earth  to  fall,  or  be  washed  into  the  heart 
of  the  plant,  nor  even  into  the  inside  of  the  bottom  leaves.  The  stem  of  a 
cabbage,  and  the  stems  of  all  the  cabbage  kind,  send  out  roots  from  all  the  parts 
of  them  that  are  put  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground.  It  is  good,  there- 
fore, to  plant  as  deep  as  you  can  without  injury  to  the  leaves.  The  next  con- 
sideration is,  the  fastening  of  the  plant  in  the  ground.  The  hole  is  made 
deeper  than  the  length  of  the  root,  but  the  root  should  not  be  bent,  at  the 
point,  if  it  can  be  avoided.  Then,  while  one  hand  holds  the  plant,  with  its 
root  in  the  hole,  the  other  hand  applies  the  setting  stick  to  the  earth  on  one 
side  of  the  hole,  the  stick  being  held  in  such  a way  as  to  form  a sharp  trian- 
gle with  the  plant.  Then,  pushing  the  stick  dowrn,  so  that  its  point  go  a 
little  deeper  than  the  point  of  the  root , and  giving  it  a little  twist,  it  presses  the 
earth  against  the  point,  or  bottom  of  the  root.  And  thus  all  is  safe,  and  the 
plant  is  sure  to  grow.” — -Cobbett. 

After-culture. — Little  more  is  necessary  than  to  stir  the  ground  pretty  fre- 
quently, and  keep  it  clear  of  weeds.  It  is  recommended  to  hoe  the  ground 
while  the  dew  is  on,  once  a week,  till  they  begin  to  head. 

Diseases  and  insects. — Cabbages  are  liable  to  a disease  in  the  roots,  in 
which  they  become  swelled  and  knobby,  and  the  plants  of  weak  and  imper 
2* 


34 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


feet  growth.  This  disorder  is  called  stump  foot , fumble  foot , &c.  It  has 
been  supposed  to  be  caused  by  the  attacks  of  grubs,  below  the  surface  of 
the  ground ; and  the  disorder  is  said  to  be  chiefly  prevalent  where  the  same 
sorts  of  cabbages  have  been  raised  on  the  same  ground  several  years  in  suc- 
cession. Lovet  Peters,  Esq.,  of  Westborough,  Mass.,  says  the  cause  of  the 
stump  foot  is  in  the  soil : — “ Few  pieces  of  land,  I believe,  that  have  been, 
for  several  successive  years,  under  the  plow,  will  produce  a good  crop  of 
cabbages,  though  there  may  be  exceptions.  My  method  of  raising  them, 
which  I have  practiced  several  years  with  complete  success,  is  the  follow- 
ing : — In  the  spring,  take  a piece  of  green  sward,  of  a good  soil,  and  free 
from  stones,  and  turn  it  over  with  the  plow  as  flat  as  possible  ; then  spread 
on  a large  quantity  of  good  manure  : if  it  has  been  previously  mixed  with 
leached  ashes,  the  better.  Then  harrow  gently,  and  early  in  June:  if  for 
winter  cabbage,  cut  holes  through  the  turf,  with  a hoe,  as  near  together  as 
the  cabbages  ought  to  grow ; fill  the  holes  with  fine  earth  and  manure,  and 
then  set  the  plants,  or  put  in  a small  number  of  seeds — I prefer  the  latter, 
however,*  since  it  saves  the  labor  of  setting,  and  is  much  surer  of  success, 
if  it  happens  to  be  a time  of  drought.  They  will  need  no  more  hoeing 
than  is  necessary  to  keep  down  the  weeds.  In  this  way,  I have  raised  cab- 
bages of  the  largest  size,  in  a green  sward  potato  field,  without  more  hoeing 
than  was  necessary  for  the  potatoes.” 

Cabbage  plants  are  liable  to  be  attacked  b)r  a grub  or  black  worm,  in  the 
night,  which  eats  off  the  stalks,  just  above  ground,  and  buries  itself  in  the 

* Cultivators  do  not  agree  on  the  subject  of  transplanting  cabbage  plants,  or  sow- 
ing the  seeds  in  the  spots  where  the  plants  are  to  grow.  Dr.  Deane,  as  has  appeared 
above,  after  having  tried  both  methods,  gave  the  preference  to  transplanting.  Mr. 
Peters,  as  we  have  seen,  prefers  the  other  mode.  Mr.  Bordley  relates  an  experiment,  in 
which  he  “ compared  cabb  ages  transplanted  with  others  not  once  moved.  The  unmoved 
grew,  and  were  better  th  an  the  moved.”  Mr.  Cobbett  says,  “ to  have  fine  cabbages  of 
any  sort,  they  must  be  twice  transplanted.  First,  they  should  be  taken  from  the  seed- 
bed, (where  they  have  been  sown  in  beds  near  to  each  other,)  and  put  into  fresh  dug, 
well-broken  ground,  at  six  inches  apart  every  way.  This  is  called  'pricking  out.  By 
standing  here  about  fifteen  or  twenty  days,  they  get  straight,  and  stand  strong,  erect* 
and  have  a straight  and  stout  stem.  Out  of  this  plantation  they  come  all  of  a size  ; 
the  roots  of  all  are  in  the  same  state,  and  they  strike  quicker  into  the  ground  where 
they  stand  for  a crop.”  According  to  Rees ’ Cyclopedia,  it  was  the  practice  of  the  cele- 
brated Bakewell,  and  other  cultivators  who  followed  his  example,  to  drill  cabbage 
seed  where  the  plants  were  to  remain.  Perhaps  there  would  be  no  necessity  for  trans- 
planting cabbages,  in  order  to  make  the  stems  “ straight  and  stout,”  according  to  Mr. 
Cobbett’s  directions,  if  the  plants  were  not  originally  sown  too  thick,  or  were  properly 
thinned  at  an  early  period  of  their  growth.  An  English  writer  says,  “Much  injury 
frequently  arises  to  young  cabbage  plants,  from  the  seed  being  sown  too  thick  ; care 
should,  therefore,  be  taken,  to  have  them  properly  thinned  out,  whenever  they  come 
up  in  too  thick  a manner.  Probably,  if  the  plants  were  sown  in  the  hills  in  which 
they  are  intended  to  grow  for  a crop,  and  thinned  out  in  due  season,  they  would 
grow  as  straight  and  stout  as  if  they  had  been  several  times  transplanted.” 


CABBAGE. 


35 


ground  as  soon  as  the  sun  rises.  Dr.  Deane  observed  that  a little  circle  of 
lime  or  rockweed  round  the  plant,  will  preserve  it,  and  recommends  dig- 
ging for  the  worm  near  the  place  which  shows  the  marks  of  its  ravages, 
and  destroying  it.  Scalding  the  hills  with  boiling  water,  and  then  inclosing 
them  with  boards,  barks,  or  shingles,  would  be  an  effectual,  but  troublesome 
mode,  ot  guarding  against  worms.  The  Economical  Journal  of  France  gives 
the  following  method,  which  it  states  is  infallible,  to  guard  not  only  against 
caterpillars,  but  all  other  insects  which  infest  cabbages  or  other  vegetables  : — 
Sow  with  hemp  all  the  borders  of  the  ground  where  the  cabbage  is  planted ; 
and,  although  the  neighborhood  be  infested  with  caterpillars,  the  place  in- 
closed with  hemp  will  be  perfectly  free,  and  not  one  of  the  vermin  will 
approach  it.  Watering  the  plants  with  w^ater  which  had  been  poured  boil- 
ing hot  on  elder  leaves,  or  walnut  leaves,  and  suffered  to  stand  till  cool,  has 
been  recommended.  The  following  mixture  is  also  said  to  be  a preservative 
against  all  kinds  of  insects : — Take  a pound  and  three  quarters  of  soap,  the 
same  quantity  of  flowers  of  sulphur,  two  pounds  of  puff  balls,  and  fifteen 
gallons  of  water.  When  the  whole  has  been  well  mixed,  by  the  aid  of  a 
gentle  heat,  sprinkle  the  insects  with  the  liquor,  and  it  will  instantly  kill 
them.  To  get  rid  of  the  aphides  or  cabbage  lice,  watering  the  plants  with 
soap-suds,  or  a solution  of  salt  in  w'ater,  (not  too  strong,  lest  it  kill  the 
plants,)  is  said  to  be  efficient. 

Preserving  cabbages . — Mr.  McMahon  recommends  the  following  method 
for  preserving  cabbages  for  winter  and  spring  use  : — “ Immediately  previous 
to  the  setting  in  of  hard  frost,  take  up  your  cabbages  and  Savoys,  observing 
to  do  it  in  a dry  day ; turn  their  tops  downward,  and  let  them  remain  so  for 
a few  hours,  to  drain  off  any  water  that  may  be  lodged  between  their 
leaves ; then  make  choice  of  a ridge  of  dry  earth,  in  a well-sln*ltered,  warm 
exposure,  and  plant  them  down  to  their  heads  therein,  close  to  one  another, 
having  previously  taken  off  some  of  their  loose,  hanging  leaves.  Imme- 
diately erect  over  them  a low,  temporary  shed,  of  any  kind  that  will  keep 
them  perfectly  free  from  wet,  which  is  to  be  open  at  both  ends,  to  admit  a 
current  of  air  in  mild,  dry  w*eather.  These  ends  are  to  be  closed  with 
straw  wrhen  the  weather  is  very  severe.  In  this  situation  your  cabbages 
will  keep  in  a high  state  of  preservation  till  spring;  for,  being  kept  per- 
fectly free  from  wet,  as  well  as  from  the  action  of  the  sun,  the  frost  will 
have  little  or  no  effect  upon  them.  In  such  a place  the  heads  may  be  cut 
off  as  wanted,  and  if  frozen,  soak  them  in  spring,  well,  or  pump  water,  for 
a few  hours  previous  to  their  being  cooked,  which  will  dissolve  the  frost, 
and  extract  any  disagreeable  taste  occasioned  thereby.77 

The  principal  gardener  in  the  Shaker  establishment,  in  New  Lebanon, 
Columbia  county,  N.Y.,  directs  not  to  pull  up  cabbages  in  autumn,  “ till 
there  is  danger  of  their  freezing  too  fast  in  the  ground  to  be  got  up.  If  there 
happens  an  early  snow,  it  will  not  injure  them.  When  they  are  removed 


36 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


from  the  garden,  they  should  be  set  out  again  in  a trench  dug  in  the  bottom 
of  a cellar.  If  the  cellar  is  pretty  cool,  it  will  be  better.57 

The  London  Monthly  Magazine  gives  the  following  method,  by  which 
cabbages  may  be  preserved  on  board  ships,  &c. : — u The  cabbage  is  cut  so  as 
to  leave  about  two  inches  or  more  of  the  stem  attached  to  it ; after  which 
the  pith  is  scooped  out  to  about  the  depth  of  an  inch,  care  being  taken  not 
to  wound  or  bruise  the  rind  by  this  operation.  The  cabbages  then  are  sus- 
pended by  means  of  a cord,  tied  round  that  portion  of  the  stem  next  the 
cabbage,  and  fastened  at  regular  intervals  to  a rope  across  the  deck.  That 
portion  of  the  stem  from  which  the  pith  is  taken,  being  uppermost,  is  regu- 
larly filled  with  water.77 

To  save  cabbage  seed. — “ The  raising  of  the  seed  of  the  different  sorts  of 
cabbage,  Neill  observes,  affords  employment  to  many  persons  in  various 
parts  of  England.  It  is  well  known  that  no  plants  are  more  liable  to  be 
spoiled  by  cross  breeds,  than  the  cabbage  tribe,  unless  the  plants  of  any  par- 
ticular variety,  when  in  flower,  be  kept  at  a very  considerable  distance  from 
any  other ; also  in  flower,  bees  are  extremely  apt  to  carry  the  pollen  of  the 
one  to  the  other,  and  produce  confusion  in  the  progeny.  Market  gardeners, 
and  many  private  individuals,  raise  seed  for  their  own  use.  Some  of  the 
handsomest  cabbages  of  the  different  sorts  are  dug  up  in  autumn,  and  sunk 
in  the  ground  to  the  head ; early  next  summer  a flower-stem  appears, 
which  is  followed  by  abundance  of  seed.  A few  of  the  soundest  and 
healthiest  cabbage-stalks,  furnished  with  sprouts,  answer  the  same  end. 
When  the  seed  has  been  well  ripened  and  dried,  it  will  keep  for  six  or  eight 
years.  It  is  mentioned  by  Bastien,  that  the  seed-growers  of  Aubervilliers 
have  learned  by  experience,  that  seed  gathered  from  the  middle  flower-stem 
produces  plants  which  will  be  fit  for  use  a fortnight  earlier  than  those  from 
the  seed  of  the  lateral  flower-stem ; this  may  deserve  the  attention  of  the 
watchful  gardener,  and  assist  him  in  regulating  his  successive  crops  of  the 
same  kind  of  cabbage.77 — Loudon . 

Field  culture. — The  variety  cultivated  in  the  fields  for  cattle  is  almost  ex- 
clusively the  large  Scotch,  or  field  cabbage.  The  land  is  prepared  the  same 
way  as  for  other  hoed  crops.  u The  preparation  given  to  the  plants,77  says 
Loudon,  “ consists  in  pinching  off  the  extremity  of  their  tap-root,  and  any 
tubercles  which  appear  on  the  root  or  stem,  and  in  immersing  the  root 
and  stem  in  a puddle  or  mixture  of  earth  and  water,  to  protect  the 
fibers  and  pores  of  the  roots  and  stem  from  drought.  The  plants  may 
then  be  inserted  by  the  dibbler,  taking  care  not  to  plant  too  deep,  and 
to  press  the  earth  firmly  to  the  lower  extremity  of  the  root.  If  this 
last  point  is  not  attended  to,  the  plants  will  either  die,  or,  if  kept  alive 
by  the  moisture  of  the  soil,  or  rain,  their  progress  will  be  very  slow.  When 
the  distance  between  the  ridglets  [or  rows]  is  twenty-seven  inches,  the 
plants  are  set  about  two  feet  asunder  in  the  rows,  and  the  quantity  required 


CARD  0 ON. 


3T 

for  an  acre  is  about  6000  plants.”  The  after- culture,  preservation,  uses,  &c. 
have  been  sufficiently  detailed  in  the  preceding  pages,  under  this  head. 


CARAWAY. 

Carum  carui. 

“ The  caraway  is  a biennial  plant,  a native  of  England,  being  occasionally 
found  in  meadows  and  pastures.  It  rises  a foot  and  a half  high,  with  spread- 
ing branches;  the  leaves  are  decompound  ; the  leaflets  in  sixes  ; it  produces 
umbels  of  white  flowers  in  June. 

K Use. — The  plant  is  cultivated  chiefly  for  the  seed,  which  is  used  in  con- 
fectionery and  in  medicine.  In  spring,  the  under  leaves  are  sometimes  put 
in  soups  ; and  in  former  times  the  fusiform  roots  were  eaten  as  parsnips,  to 
which  Parkinson  gives  them  the  preference.  In  Essex,  large  quantities  of 
the  seed  are  annually  raised  for  distillation  with  spirituous  liquors. 

u Culture. — It  is  raised  from  seed,  of  which  a quarter  of  an  ounce  is  suffi- 
cient for  a seed-bed  four  feet  by  five.  Sow  annually,  in  autumn,  soon  after 
the  seed  is  ripe  : the  seedlings  will  rise  quickly,  and  should  be  thinned  to  a 
foot’s  distance  each  wTay.  In  default  of  sowing  in  autumn,  sow  in  March  or 
April,  either  in  drills  or  broad-cast ; but  the  plants,  so  raised,  will  not  in  gen- 
eral flower  till  the  following  year.  When  the  seed  is  ripe,  the  plant  is  gen- 
erally pulled  up  in  gathering,  especially  in  field  culture?1 — Loudon. 


CARDOON. 

Cynora  cardunculus. — Cardon , Fr. — Kardanen , Ger. 

The-  cardoon  is  a hardy,  perennial  plant,  a native  of  Candia,  introduced 
into  England  in  1658.  It  is  a species  of  artichoke,  and  grows  wild  in  the 
south  of  France. 

Propagation. — u Though  a perennial,  it  often  dies  in  the  winter,  and  there- 
fore requires  to  be  raised  from  seed  almost  every  year ; and,  for  a bed  four 
feet  wide  by  eight  feet,  two  ounces  are  sufficient.  Formerly  the  plants  were 
raised  on  hot-beds,  and  transplanted  in  May  and  June,  but  now  the  seed  is 
generally  sown  where  the  plants  are  to  remain.” — Loudon. 

Use. — u The  parts  of  the  cardoon  that  are  eaten  are  not  those  belonging 
immediately  to  the  flower,  as  of  the  artichoke,  but  the  roots,  stalks,  and 
middle  ribs  o f the  leaves,  and  chiefly  the  latter,  which  are  thick  and  crisp. 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


38 


But  as  all  these  are  naturally  bitter,  the  plants  are  blanched  by  being  tied  up 
like  lettuces,  about  the  month  of  September,  and  having  earth  thrown  upon 
their  lower  parts  to  the  depth  of  eighteen  inches  or  two  feet.  Cardoons 
come  into  season  about  the  end  of  November ; and  are  either  eaten  alone,  or 
as  a sauce  to  animal  food,  particularly  roast  meat;  or  are  introduced  as  a dish 
in  the  second  course P — Loudon. 


This  plant  is  said  to  be  a native  of  Great  Britain,  where  it  is  still  found 
growing  wild.  There  are  many  varieties  of  the  carrot;  and  the  following 
are  the  finest  sorts  enumerated  in  Mr.  Russell’s  Catalogue  : — 


Soil. — “ The  carrot  requires  a light,  mellow  soil,  mixed  with  sand,  and 
should  be  dug  or  trenched  one  or  two  spades  deep,  breaking  well  all  the 
lumpy  parts,  so  as  to  form  a porous  bed,  and  an  even  surface.  The  orange 
and  red  sorts,  on  account  of  their  longer  roots,  require  a soil  proportionably 
deeper  than  the  horn.” 

Seed  estimate  and  sowing. — The  seeds  have  numerous  forked  hairs  on  their 
borders,  by  which  they  adhere  together,  and  therefore  should-,  previously  to  sow- 
ing, be  rubbed  between  the  hands,  and  mixed  with  dry  sand,  in  order  to  separate 
them  as  much  as  possible.  They  are  also  very  light,  and  therefore  a calm 
day  must  be  chosen  for  sowing  ; and  the  seeds  should  be  disseminated  equally, 
and  trodden  in  before  raking.  Previously  to  sowing,  if  convenient,  the  seed 
should  be  proven,  by  sowing  a few  in  a pot,  and  placing  it  in  a hot-bed  or 
hot-house,  as  it  is  more  frequently  bad  than  most  seeds.  Fora  bed  4J  feet 
by  30,  one  ounce  will  be  requisite,  and  the  same  for  150  feet  of  drill  row. 
Dr.  Deane  advises  to  sow  carrots  in  drills  from  9 to  12  inches  apart,  across 
beds  4 feet  wide.  M‘Mahon  directs  to  sow  thin  in  drills,  distant  from  each 
other  from  8 to  10  inches,  and  to  thin  them  to  3 inches,  plant  from  plant,  in 
the  rows. 

To  save  seed. — Plant  some  largest,  best  roots  early  in  the  spring,  two  feet 
apart ; insert  them  a few  inches  over  the  crowns.  They  will  yield  ripe 
seed  in  autumn,  of  which  gather  only  from  the  principal  umbel,  which  is 
likely  not  only  to  afford  the  ripest  and  largest  seed,  but  the  most  vigorous 
plants, 


CARROT. 


Daucus  Carota. — Carotte , Fr. — Mohre , Ger. 


Altringham,  (a  superior  sort,) 
Early  horn, 

Cremer,  (fine  for  the  table,) 


Lemon, 

Long  orange, 
Blood  red. 


CARROT. 


39 


Field  culture. — “The  only  sort  of  carrot  adapted  to  field  culture/7  says 
Loudon,  “ is  the  long  red,  or  field  carrot.  New  seed  is  most  essential,  as  it 
will  not  vegetate  the  second  year.  The  best  soil  for  the  carrot  is  a deep, 
rich,  sandy  loam  ; such  a soil  ought  to  be  at  least  a foot  deep,  and  all  equally 
good  from  top  to  bottom.  On  any  other  the  field  culture  of  the  carrot  will 
not  answer. 

“ The  usual  preparation  of  the  seed  for  sowing  is  the  mixing  it  with  earth 
or  sand,  to  cause  it  to  separate  more  freely  ; but  Burrow's  adds  wrater,  turns 
over  the  mixture  of  seeds  and  moist  earth  several  times,  and  thus  brings  it 
to  the  point  of  vegetating  before  he  sows  it.  Having  wreighed  the  quantity 
of  seed  to  be  sown,  and  ^collected  sand  or  fine  mould,  in  the  proportion  of 
about  two  bushels  to  an  acre,  I mix  the  seed  with  the  sand  or  mould,  eight 
or  ten  pounds  to  every  twTo  bushels,  and  this  is  done  about  a fortnight  or  three 
wreeks  before  the  time  I intend  sowing ; taking  care  to  have  the  heaps  turn 
ed  over  every  day,  sprinkling  the  outside  of  them  with  water  each  time  of 
turning  over,  that  every  part  of  the  sand  heaps  may  be  equally  moist,  and 
that  vegetation  may  take  place  alike  throughout.  I have  great  advantage  in 
preparing  the  seed  so  long  before  hand  ; it  is  by  this  means  in  a state  of  for- 
ward vegetation,  therefore  lies  but  a short  time  in  the  ground,  and,  by 
quickly  appearing  above  ground,  is  more  able  to  contend  with  those  numer- 
ous tribes  of  weeds  in  the  soil,  w7hose  seeds  are  of  quicker  vegetation.77 

The  quantity  of  seed,  when  carrots  are  sowrn  in  rows,  is  two  pounds  per 
acre;  and,  for  broad-cast  sowing,  five  pounds.  The  rowTs  for  the  larger  or 
proper  field  carrots,  should  be  from  14  to  16  or  18  inches  apart ; and  the  car- 
rots thinned,  in  hoeing,  to  3 or  4 inches  apart  in  the  rows.  The  seeds  will  do 
best  when  sowrn  by  hand,  as  their  shape  does  not  well  admit  of  their  being 
sown  by  machines.  Loudon  says,  u It  has  been  advised,  by  an  intelligent 
cultivator,  to  deposit  the  seed  to  the  depth  of  one  inch  in  the  rows,  leaving 
the  spaces  of  fourteen  inches  between  them  as  intervals ; the  seed  in  these 
cases,  being  previously  steeped  in  rain  wrater  for  twenty-four  hours,  and  left 
to  sprout,  after  which  it  is  mixed  with  saw-dust  and  dry  mould,  in  the  pro- 
portion of  one  peck  and  a half  of  each  to  a pound  of  seed.  The  land 
is  aftenvards  lightly  harrowed  over  once  in  a place.  Two  pounds  of  seed, 
in  this  mode,  is  found,  as  has  been  observed,  sufficient  for  an  acre  of  land.77 

After-culture. — The  first  hoeing  of  carrots  must  be  by  hand — an  operation 
which  requires  a great  deal  of  attention,  as  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  and 
separate  the  weeds  from  the  young  carrots.  Loudon  says,  “ From  eight  to 
fifteen  or  eighteen  inches,  each  way,  is  the  common  distance  at  which  they 
are  allowed  to  stand ; and  it  has  been  proved,  from  many  years7  experience 
in  districts  wffiere  they  are  most  cultivated,  that  carrots  which  grow  at  such 
distances  always  prove  a more  abundant  crop  than  when  the  plants  are 
allowed  to  stand  closer  together.7*  Deane  observed,  “ It  is  not  amiss  if  they 


40 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


grow  large  and  rank,  when  they  are  chiefly  designed  as  food  for  cattle,  though 
small-sized  ones  are  preferred  for  the  table.” 

Mr.  Quincy  gives  the  following  statement  of  the  mode  of  cultivating  car- 
rots, made  use  of  by  Samuel  Wyllys  Pomeroy,  and  which  he  prefers  to  all 
others : — 

“Plow  as  deep  in  the  fall  or  spring  as  the  state  of  the  land  will 
permit.  Cross-plow  in  the  spring,  and  harrow  level.  Put  on  fifteen,  twen- 
ty, or  twenty-five  buck-loads  of  the  most  rotten  compost  to  the  acre,  as  the 
heart  of  the  land  may  be.  Spread  and  harrow  it  fine.  Then,  with  a horse- 
plow,  strike  it  into  t wo-bout  ridges,  as  near  together  as  four  back  furrows 
will  make  them,  and  if  the  two  first  back  furrow’s  are  narrow,  the  other  twro 
being  deep,  the  ridge  will  be  nearly  to  a point,  and  should  be  eighteen  or 
twrenty  inches  from  the  bottom  of  the  furrow,  if  it  be  well  cleared  out.  To 
do  which,  make  another  bout  in  the  furrow,  if  necessary.  Then,  with  the 
head  of  the  rake,  strike  off  the  erowTn  of  the  ridge,  till  it  is  three  or  four 
inches  wide,  and  w?ith  it,  or  a hoe,  open  a drill  in  the  usual  manner.  Sow 
the  seed  pretty  thick,  cover  and  press  down  a little  wTith  a hoe  or  shovel. 
When  the  W’eeds  appear,  run  a small  plow  through  the  furrow’s.  Hand- 
wreed  the  crop,  and  hoe  the  wreeds  from  the  sides  of  the  ridge.  The  orange 
carrot  is  best.” 

“ In  harvesting,  a plow  with  one  yoke  of  oxen  should  be  run  near  the  side 
of  the  range  of  carrots,  and  as  deep  as  possible.  This  loosens  the  dirt,  and 
clears  one  side  of  the  carrots  almost  entirely  from  the  earth.  The  laborers 
then,  writh  great  facility,  take  them  by  their  tops  out  of  the  beds,  and  throw 
them  into  carts,  with  only  an  occasional  use  of  the  hoe  to  plants  which  the 
plow  has  not  loosened. 

“ I have  no  question  that,  conducted  in  this  mode,  a carrot  crop  may  be 
made  more  productive,  and  much  less  expensive,  than  the  potato  crop  usu- 
ally is.  In  sowing,  I use  a small  hand-drill,  which  lays  the  seed  with  great 
regularity— a circumstance  very  important  both  to  facilitate  weeding  and 
harvesting ; since,  if  the  carrots  stand  straggling,  and  not  in  a line,  the 
plow,  when  harvesting,  leaves  the  more  to  be  loosened  by  the  hoe  or  the 
fork.” — Massachusetts  Agricultural  Repository , vol.  iv,  p.  24. 

A mode  of  cultivating  carrots,  differing  slightly  from  the  above,  is  de- 
scribed by  Mr.  Quincy,  in  the  same  work,  vol.  iv,  p.  212. 

For  other  modes  of  cultivating  this  root,  see  Mass.  Agr.  Rep.  vol.  v,  pp. 
20,  255,  347. 

Use. — “ Horses  are  remarkably  fond  of  carrots,  and  it  is  even  said,  that 
when  oats  and  carrots  are  given  together,  the  horses  leave  the  oats  and  eat 
the  carrots.  The  ordinary  allowance  is  about  forty  to  fifty  pounds  a day  to 
each  horse.  Carrots,  when  mixed  with  chaff,  that  is,  cut  straw,  and  a little 
hay,  without  corn,  keep  horses  in  excellent  condition  for  performing  all  kinds 
of  ordinary  labor. 


CAULIFLOWER. 


41 


“In  comparing  the  carrot  with  the  potato,  an  additional  circumstance 
greatly  in  favor  of  the  former  is,  that  it  does  not  require  to  be  steamed  or 
boiled,  and  it  is  not  more  difficult  to  wash  than  the  potato.  These  and  other 
circumstances  considered,  it  appears  to  be  the  most  valuable  of  all  roots  for 
working  horses. 

“ The  use  of  the  carrot  in  domestic  economy  is  well  known.  Their  pro- 
duce of  nutritive  matter,  as  ascertained  by  Sir  H.  Davy,  is  ninety-eight 
parts  in  one  thousand ; of  which  three  are  starch,  and  ninety-five  sugar. 
They  are  used  in  the  dairy  in  winter  and  spring  to  give  color  and  flavor  to 
butter.  In  the  distillery,  owing  to  the  great  proportion  of  sugar  in  their 
composition,  they  yield  more  spirit  than  the  potato  5 the  usual  quantity  is 
twelve  gallons  per  ton.  They  are  excellent  in  soups,  stews,  and  haricots, 
and  boiled  whole  with  salt  beef. 

“The  diseases  of  carrots  are  only  such  as  are  common  to  most  plants, 
such  as  mildew,  insects,  &c.  The  mildew  and  worms  at  the  root  frequently 
injure  crops,  and  are  to  be  guarded  against,  as  far  as  practicable,  by  a proper 
choice,  soil,  season  of  sowing,  and  after-culture.57 — Loudon. 


CAULIFLOWER. 

Brossica  Oleracea. — Chou-jleur , Fr. — Blvmenlcohl , Ger. 

The  cauliflower  is  one  of  the  most  delicate  and  curious  of  the  whole  of  the 
brassica  tribe ; the  flower  buds  forming  a close,  firm  cluster  or  head,  white 
and  delicate,  for  the  sake  of  which  the  plant  is  cultivated. 

Varieties. — Early  ( for  the  first,  early  crops). — Later,  or  large  {for  principal  crops). 

“ Propagation  and  Soil. — The  cauliflower  is  raised  from  seed,  of  which 
half  an  ounce  is  sufficient  for  a seed-bed  four  feet  and  a half  wide,  by  ten  in 
length.  The  soil  for  the  seed-bed  may  be  light,  but,  for  final  transplanting^ 
it  can  hardly  be  too  rich,  the  cauliflower,  like  the  vine,  being  reputed  a 
4 rough  feeder.5  Cleanings  of  streets,  cesspools,  &c.,  ought,  therefore,  to  be 
liberally  supplied  during  the  growth  of  the  plants,  when  very  large  heads 
are  desired. 

“ Times  of  sowing. — The  early  and  main  superior  crop,  brought  to  fruit  by 
the  longest  nursery  attendance ; the  late  summer  succession  crop,  raised  by 
the  shortest  course ; and  the  Michaelmas  (29th  of  Sept.)  crop,  obtained  at 
the  least  expense,  are  sown,  respectively,  at  three  different  seasons.  The 
principal  sowing  is  made  about  the  end  of  the  third  week  in  August,  or  a 
day  or  two  before  or  after  the  21st,  to  raise  plants  to  stand  over  winter, 
under  frames,  hand-glasses,  or  half-sheltered  warm  borders,  for  the  early  and 


42 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


main  superior  crops  next  summer.  A secondary  sowing  in  February  or 
March,  for  succession,  and  late  inferior  crops  the  same  year  in  summer  and 
autumn.  A final  sowing,  near  the  close  of  May,  for  ordinary  crops,  to  yield 
fruit  the  following  autumn  and  winter.  The  seedlings,  protected  with  glass 
frames,  generally  grow  too  gross  in  the  stems,  which  become  partly  black- 
ened, and  the  plants,  being  thus  unhealthy,  are  not  fit  for  planting  out. 
Late-raised  seedlings,  which  spend  the  winter  in  the  open  border,  uniformly 
become  the  large  and  finest  table  cauliflowers  during  the  summer,  though 
they  certainly  do  not  come  in  quite  so  early.  Cauliflower  plants,  it  is  pro- 
bable, are  often  killed  with  too  much  attention.  Seedlings  raised  late  in 
autumn  seem  to  be  very  tenacious  of  life.” — Caled.  Hort.  Mem.  iii,  192.  “ A 

method  of  producing  cauliflowers  pretty  early,  and  with  great  certainty,  is 
this : — The  plants  are  set  in  small  pots  in  the  winter  season,  and  kept  in  any 
convenient  part  of  the  floor  of  a vinery  or  other  glazed  house.  In  the  be- 
ginning of  March  they  are  taken  out  of  the  pots  with  the  ball  of  earth  at- 
tached, and  planted  in  the  open  ground.  If  they  be  here  protected  against 
severe  frosts  with  bell-glass  covers,  they  come  into  head  in  the  course  of 
April,  if  the  weather  prove  favorable.” — Neill,  in  Edin.  Encyc. 

Drummond,  of  the  Cork  botanic  garden,  protects  cauliflower  plants  during 
winter  by  planting  them  in  excavations  made  in  the  common  soil  of  the 
garden,  and  covered  with  frames  thatched  with  long,  straight  wheat  straw. 
He  uncovers  constantly  in  mild  weather,  whether  nights  or  days. — Hort. 
Trans,  v,  369. 

For  after-culture,  preservation  through  winter,  saving  seed,  &c.,  proceed 
as  with  the  common  white  cabbage. 

Use. — “ Among  the  succulent  plants  produced  in  our  climate,  this  doubt- 
less is  one  of  the  most  nourishing,  and  likewise  the  best  adapted  to  tender 
organs  of  digestion,  especially  in  valetudinarians  and  invalids ; such  persons 
however,  ought  to  eat  it  with  the  addition  of  some  aromatic  spice,  such  as 
pounded  cardamoma,  or  caraway,  or  a small  proportion  of  bread.  To  make 
the  cauliflower  blanch  handsomely,  the  gardeners  tie  over  the  heads  of  the 
plant. 

“ To  prepare  cauliflowers. — Let  the  cauliflowers  first  be  parboiled ; next 
they  must  be  immersed  in  cold,  hard  water  for  some  time,  till  they  be 
nearly  wanted  for  the  table  ; thus,  on  being  boiled  for  a few  minutes,  they 
will  become  more  firm  and  crisp  than  if  cooked  in  the  usual  manner.” — 
Horn.  Encyc. 

Neill  (in  Edinburgh  Encyc.)  observes,  “ These  heads  or  flowers  being 
boiled,  generally  wrapped  in  a clean  linen  cloth,  are  served  up  as  a most 
delicate  vegetable  dish.  Cauliflower  is  a particular  favorite  in  this  country. 

1 Of  all  the  flowers  in  the  garden,7  Dr.  Johnson  used  to  say,  1 1 like  the  cauli- 
flower.7 For  the  early  supply  of  the  London  market,  very  great  quantities 
of  cauliflower  are  fostered  under  hand-glasses  during  winter  and  the  first 


CELERY. 


43 


part  of  spring;  and  to  behold  some  acres  overspread  with  such  glasses,  gives 
the  stranger  a forcible  idea  of  the  riches  and  luxury  of  the  metropolis.” 


CELERY. 

Apium  Graveolens. — Celeri,  Fr. — Sellerie , Ger. 

Celery  is  a hardy  biennial  plant,  a native  of  Great  Britain,  and,  when  in 
its  wild  state,  it  is  denominated  smallage.  The  root,  in  its  wild  state,  is 
thick  and  fibrous.  The  stalk  is  bushy  and  furrowed,  and  attains  the  height 
of  two  or  three  feet.  The  leaves  are  wedge-shaped,  and  the  flowers  yellow, 
which  are  produced  in  August.  The  varieties  usually  cultivated  are,  the 

White  solid,  I Italian,  and 

Rose-colored  solid,  I Celeriac,  or  turnip-rooted. 

Propagation. — All  the  sorts  are  raised  from  seed ; and  half  an  ounce  is 
reckoned  sufficient  for  a seed-bed  four  feet  and  a half  wide  by  ten  feet  in 
length,  of  the  upright  sorts  ; but  for  celeriac,  a quarter  of  an  ounce  will  be 
enough  for  a bed  four  feet  square. 

Soil. — Celery  delights  in  a soil  rather  moist,  rich  in  vegetable  mould,  but 
not  rank  from  new,  unrotted  dung. 

Timas  of  sowing. — u The  most  forward  crop  is  slightly  forced  ; any  of  the 
varieties  may  be  sown  in  the  spring,  in  the  open  garden,  at  two  or  three 
different  times,  from  the  21st  of  March  till  the  first  week  in  May ; but  the 
principal  sowing  should  be  made  in  the  first  fortnight  in  April.  Sow  in  beds 
of  light  mellow  earth,  and  rake  in  the  seed  lightly  and  regularly.  In  very 
dry  weather,  give  moderate  watering  both  before  and  after  the  plants  come 
up.  When  they  are  two,  three,  or  four  inches  high,  thin  the  seed-bed,  and 
prick  out  a quantity,  at  successive  times,  into  intermediate  beds,  three  or 
four  inches  asunder.  Water  those  removed  until  they  have  struck”  [taken 
root] . — Loudon. 

Transplanting  into  trenches. — u When  either  the  plants  left  in  the  seed- 
bed, or  those  removed,  are  from  six  to  twelve  inches  high,  or  when  the 
latter  have  acquired  a stocky  growth,  by  four  or  five  weeks’  nurture  in  the 
intermediate  bed,  transplant  them  into  trenches  for  blanching.  For  this  pur- 
pose, allot  an  open  compartment.  Mark  out  the  trenches  a foot  wide,  and 
from  three  to  three  and  a half  distance ; dig  out  each  trench  lengthwise,  ten 
or  twelve  inches  in  width,  and  a light  spit  deep,  that  is,  six  or  eight  inches. 
Lay  the  earth  dug  out  equally  on  each  side  of  the  trench  ; put  about  three 
inches  of  very  rotten  dung  into  the  trench,  then  pare  the  sides,  and  dig  the 
dung  and  parings  with  an  inch  or  two  of  the  loose  mould  at  the  bottom. 
Trim  the  tops  and  roots  of  the  plants,  and  then  set  them  in  single  rows 


44 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


along  the  middle  of  each  trench,  allowing  four  or  five  inches  distance  from 
plant  to  plant.  When  this  work  is  finished,  give  the  plants  water  in  plenty, 
and  occasionally  water  them  from  time  to  time,  if  the  weather  be  dry,  and 
likewise  let  them  be  shaded,  till  they  strike  root  and  begin  to  grow.  When 
they  have  grown  to  the  height  of  eight  or  ten  inches,  draw  earth  to  each 
side  of  them,  breaking  it  fine.  This  should  be  done  in  dry  weather,  being 
careful  not  to  bury  the  hearts.  Repeat  the  earthing  once  in  ten  days,  till 
the  plants  are  fit  for  use.  Be  careful,  however,  not  to  draw  up  too  much 
earth  to  the  plants  at  first,  lest  they  be  smothered,  and  leave  the  plants  in 
a little  hollow,  that  they  may  receive  the  full  benefit  of  the  waterings 
rain,  &c.77 

Taking  the  crop. — It  is  best  to  begin  at  one  end  of  a row,  and  dig  clean 
down  to  the  roots,  wrhich  then  loosen  with  a spade,  and  they  may  be  drawn 
up  entire,  without  breaking  the  stalks. 

To  preserve  this  plant  during  the  winter,  on  the  approach  of  frost  take  up 
a part  of  the  crop,  and  lay  it  under  sand  for  winter  use.  Those  left  in  the 
beds  may  be  covered  with  litter,  to  be  removed  in  mild  weather.  Cobbett 
directs,  to  preserve  celery  in  beds  as  follows  : — “ Two  boards,  a foot  wide 
each,  their  edges  on  one  side  laid  upon  the  earth  of  the  ridge,  formed  into  a 
roof  over  the  point  of  the  ridge,  the  upper  edge  of  one  board  going  an  inch 
over  the  upper  edge  of  the  other,  and  the  boards  fastened  well  with  pegs, 
•will  do  the  business  completely ; for  it  is  not  the  frost,  but  the  occasional 
thaws , that  you  have  to  fear,  and  the  wet  and  rot  that  they  produce.77 

To  save  seed. — Either  leave  some  established  plants  in  the  spring  where 
growing,  or  in  March,  as  soon  as  the  frost  will  permit,  set  the  plants  in  the 
ground,  full  two  feet  asunder. 

Cultivation  of  celeriac. — The  times  of  sowing  are  the  same  as  for  the  other 
sorts.  In  the  beginning  or  middle  of  June,  they  are  transplanted  into  a flat 
bed  in  the  open  air,  at  the  distance  of  fifteen  inches  from  each  other,  and  not 
in  trenches,  like  other  celery.  They  must  be  abundantly  watered  as  soon 
as  they  are  set  out,  and  the  watering  must  be  repeated  every  other  day,  or, 
if  the  weather  should  be  warm,  every  day.  As  they  increase  in  size,  they 
will  require  a greater  quantity  of  water,  and  they  must  be  occasionally  hoed. 
The  roots  will  be  fit  for  use  in  September  or  October.  Sabine  states,  that 
he  has  been  informed  that  the  plan  of  giving  excess  of  water  is  peculiar  to 
this  plant,  and  that  its  vigorous  growth  is  more  dependent  on  richness  of  soil 
than  any  other  cause.  Abercrombie  directs  to  earth  up  the  bulbs  four  or 
five  inches,  after  they  are  full  grown,  in  order  to  blanch  them. 

“ Use. — The  blanched  leafed-stalks  are  used  raw,  as  a salad,  from  August 
till  March  ; they  are  also  stewed,  and  put  in  soups.  In  Italy,  the  unblanched 
leaves  are  used  for  soups,  and  when  neither  the  blanched  nor  the  green 
leaves  can  be  had,  the  seeds  bruised  form  a good  substitute.  The  root  only 
of  the  variety  called  the  celeriac  is  used,  and  Sabine  informs  us  (Hort.  Trans. 


CHIVE. 


45 


vol.  iii), c it  is  excellent  in  soups,  in  which,  whether  white  or  brown,  slices 
of  it  are  used  as  ingredients,  and  readily  impart  their  flavor.  With  the  Ger- 
mans, it  is  also  a common  salad,  for  which  the  roots  are  prepared  by  boiling, 
until  a fork  will  pass  easily  through  them : after  they  are  boiled,  and  become 
cold,  they  are  eaten  with  oil  and  vinegar.  They  are  also  sometimes  served 
up  at  table,  stewed  with  rich  sauces.  In  all  cases,  before  they  are  boiled, 
the  coat  and  fibers  of  the  roots,  which  are  very  strong,  are  cut  away ; and 
the  root  is  put  into  cold  water,  on  the  fire,  not  in  water  previously  boiling.5  57 
Loudon. 


CHAMOMILE. 

Anthemis  nobilis. 

Varieties. — These  are  the  common  single  and  double-flowered. 

Soil  and  culture. — This  herb  delights  in  a poor,  sandy  soil.  u Both  kinds 
are  propagated  by  parting  the  roots,  or  by  slips  of  the  rooted  offsets  or  of  the 
runners.  Detach  them  with  roots  in  little  tufty  sets  in  March,  April  or 
May,  and  plant  them  from  eight  to  twelve  inches  asunder,  giving  water. 
The  flowers  should  be  gathered  in  their  prime,  in  June  or  July,  just  when 
full-blown.  Let  them  be  spread  to  dry  in  a shady  place;  then  put  them 
into  paper  bags,  and  house  them  for  use.55 — Abercrombie. 

uUse. — It  is  cultivated  on  account  of  the  flower,  which  is  a safe  bitter  and 
stomachic,  and  much  used  under  the  name  of  chamomile-tea.  The  double- 
flowering variety,  though  more  beautiful  than  the  single-flowered,  is  less 
useful ; the  aromatic  principle  not  residing  in  the  floscules  of  the  ray,  the 
multiplication  of  w hich  constitutes . the  double  flower.  The  double  sort, 
however,  is  most  cultivated  by  growers. 


CHIVE. 

Allium  schcenoprasum. — Civette , Fr. — Binsenlauch , Ger. 

“ The  chive,  or  cive,  is  a hardy  perennial  plant,  a native  of  Britain,  and 
found  in  meadows  and  pastures,  though  but  rarely.  The  leaves  rise  from 
many  small  bulbous  roots  connected  in  bunches;  are  awl-shaped,  thread- 
like, and  produced  in  tufts.  The  flowers  are  white,  tinged  wdth  reddish- 
purple,  and  appear  on  round  stalks  in  June.55 — Loudon.  It  is  of  common 
and  easy  cultivation. 


46 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


CORIANDER. 

Coriandrum  sativum . 

Coriander  is  a hardy  annual  plant,  which  originated  in  the  East 

Culture. — This  plant  delights  in  a sandy  loam.  It  is  raised  from  seeas, 
which  may  be  sow’n  in  March,  or  as  soon  as  the  frost  will  permit,  wrhen  the 
weather  is  mild  and  dry.  The  quantity  of  seed  requisite  for  a bed  six  feet 
long  and  four  feet  wide,  sown  in  rows  nine  inches  apart,  is  half  an  ounce. 
The  seed  should  be  buried  half  an  inch. 

Use. — The  seeds  have  a pleasant  flavor,  and,  when  incrusted  with  sugar, 
are  sold  by  the  confectioners  under  the  name  of  coriander  comfits.  They  are 
also  used  in  the  bitter  infusions  and  preparations  of  senna,  the  disagreeable 
taste  of  which  they  completely  overcome,  and  for  various  other  purposes, 
both  by  druggists  and  distillers. 


CRESS,  WATER. 

Sisymbrium  nasturtium . 

A genus  of  plants,  of  which  the  principal  is  the  common  water-cress, 
found  in  springs  and  brooks.  It  is  perennial,  and  produces  white  flowers 
that  are  in  bloom  in  June  or  July.  Lasteyrie  tells  us,  that  in  Germany,  great 
pains  are  taken  to  propagate  the  water-cress,  and  gives  the  following  account 
of  their  mode  of  doing  it : u The  water,”  he  says,  “ most  favorable  for  its 
production,  is  that  in  which  it  grows  naturally,  and  which  in  winter  pre- 
serves heat  enough  to  prevent  it  from  freezing.  The  situation  on  which  to 
form  a cress  plantation  ought  to  have  a little  slope  or  inclination,  because 
water  in  a state  of  repose,  alters  the  flavor  of  the  plant.  Having  chosen  the 
place,  it  is  formed  into  heights  and  hollows  alternately ; the  latter  are  des- 
tined for  the  cresses,  and  the  former  for  the  culture  of  other  plants.  The 
size  of  the  hollows  is  made  to  depend  on  the  quantity  of  water  you  can 
bring  into  them,  and  the  demand  for  the  article  to  be  raised.  If  the  soil  of 
the  hollows  is  not  sufficiently  rich,  better  earth  must  be  brought  to  amend  it, 
and  if  the  bottom  be  marshy,  you  throw  over  it  some  inches  of  sand.  Your 
next  step  is  to  cover  it  with  water  for  some  hours,  after  which  you  drain 
and  sow  or  plant.  At  the  end  of  a few  days,  you  let  in  the  wrater,  and  drain 
as  before,  and  continue  these  processes  until  the  cresses  appear,  if  sown,  or 
until  they  have  taken  root,  if  planted.  The  quantity  of  water  let  in  is 
always  to  be  regulated  by  the  growth  of  the  plant;  for  though  it  cannot 


CRESS,  WATER. 


47 


but  in  water,  it  will  not  bear  to  be  long  covered  with  it.  Planting  is  al- 
ways surer  than  sowing,  and  is  therefore  preferred.  The  epoch  for  this  is 
either  March  or  August.  The  distance  between  the  plants  should  not  be  less 
than  ten  or  fifteen  inches.  Moving  the  earth  about  their  roots  with  the  hoe, 
from  time  to  time,  is  useful ; but  for  the  rest,  (having  once  taken  root,)  no 
further  care  is  necessary.  A cress  plantation  is  in  full  bearing  the  second 
year,  and  lasts  a long  time.  When  it  begins  to  fail,  it  may  be  renewed  by 
taking  off  a foot  of  the  surface  soil  of  the  old  beds  and  replacing  it  with  good 
and  fresh  earth.  In  winter,  the  beds  are  covered  more  deeply  with  water, 
which  protects  the  plant  against  the  frost.57 

The  same  writer  informs  us  how  they  manage  their  cress  plantations  near 
Paris.  “ Having  there,55  he  says,  u no  running  water,  they  cultivate  it  in  the 
neighborhood  of  wells,  and  water  it  every  day.  The  cress  vegetates  prompt- 
ly, but  becomes  acrid  in  taste.  They  accordingly  prefer  sowing  to  planting, 
because  if  cut  when  only  six  inches  high,  and  treated  in  all  respects  as  an 
annual,  it  has  least  of  this  pungency.55 — Armstrong's  Treatise. 

Loudon  says,  “ Some  market  gardeners,  who  can  command  a small  stream 
of  water,  grow  the  water-cress  in  beds  sunk  about  a foot  in  a retentive  soil, 
with  a very  gentle  slope  from  one  end  to  the  other.  Along  the  bottom  of 
this  bed,  which  may  be  of  any  convenient  breadth  and  length,  chalk  or 
gravel  is  deposited,  and  plants  are  inserted  about  six  inches5  distance  every 
way.  Then,  according  to  the  slope  and  length  of  the  bed,  dams  are  made 
six  inches  high  across  it,  at  intervals  ; so  that,  when  these  dams  are  full,  the 
water  may  rise  not  less  than  three  inches  on  all  the  plants  included  in  each. 
The  water  being  turned  on  will  circulate  from  dam  to  dam  ; and  the  plants, 
if  not  allowed  to  run  to  flower,  will  afford  abundance  of  young  tops  in  all  but 
the  winter  months.  A stream  of  water,  no  larger  than  what  will  fill  a pipe 
of  one  inch  bore,  will,  if  not  absorbed  by  the  soil,  suffice  to  irrigate  in  this 
way  an  eighth  of  an  acre.  As  some  of  the  plants  are  apt  to  rot  off  in  win- 
ter, the  plantation  should  be  laid  dry  two  or  three  times  a year,  and  all 
weeds  and  decayed  parts  removed,  and  vacancies  filled  up.  Cress  grown  in 
this  way,  however,  is  far  inferior  to  that  grown  in  a living  stream  flowing 
over  gravel  or  chalk.55 

Use. — u Water-cresses  are  universally  used  and  eaten  as  an  early  and 
wholesome  spring  salad.  Being  an  excellent  anti-scorbutic  and  stomachic, 
they  are  nearly  allied  to  scurvy  grass,  but  do  not  possess  so  great  a degree  of 
acrimony.  They  are  also  supposed  to  purify  the  blood  and  humors,  and  to 
open  visceral  obstructions.55 — Bom.  Encyc. 


48 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


CRESS,  GARDEN. 

Lepidium  sativum. — Cresson , Fr. — Kresse , Ger. 

The  garden-cress  is  a hardy  annual  plant,  cultivated,  says  Loudon,  since 
1584;  but  its  native  country  is  unknown. 

Varieties. — 

Curled,  or  peppergrass.  | Broad-leaved  garden  cress. 

This  plant  is  raised  from  seed,  of  which  one  ounce  will  suffice  for  a bed  of 
four  feet  square. 

Times  of  sowing,  and  site  of  the  crop. — Cress  should  be  raised  three  or  four 
times  every  month,  as  it  may  be  in  demand,  to  have  young  crops  constantly 
in  succession.  Allot  some  warm  situation  for  early  spring  sowing ; and,  if 
the  weather  be  cold,  either  put  on  a spare  frame,  or  cover  with  matting  be- 
tween sunset  and  sunrise.  For  autumnal  sowings,  when  cold  weather  is  ap- 
proaching, allot  some  warm  borders,  and  give  occasional  protection.  “The 
cress,”  says  Loudon,  “is  often  raised  on  porous  earthenware  vessels,  of  a 
conical  form,  having  small  gutters  on  the  sides  for  retaining  the  seeds.  These 
are  called  pyramids , are  somewhat  ornamental  in  winter,  and  afford  repeated 
gatherings.” 

Process  in  sowing , and  subsequent  culture. — “Having  allotted  a fine,  mellow 
soil,  to  receive  the  seed,  dig  the  surface,  and  rake  it  finally,  preparatory  to 
sowing,  which  mostly  perform  in  small,  flat,  shallow  drills,  four,  five,  or  six 
inches  asunder.  Sow  the  seed  very  thickly,  and  earth  over  very  lightly,  or 
but  just  thinly  cover.  Give  occasional  waterings  in  warm,  dry  seasons.” 

Taking  the  crop. — “To  gather  cress  in  perfection,  cut  them  while  quite 
young,  either  clean  to  the  root,  or  only  the  tops  of  advanced  plants.  They 
will  shoot  again  for  future  gathering,  but  the  leaves  will  be  hotter,  and  not 
so  mild  and  tender  as  those  of  younger  plants.” 

To  save  seed. — “ Either  sow  a portion  in  the  spring  for  that  purpose,  or 
leave  some  rows  of  any  overgrown  old  crop  in  April  or  May.  The  plants 
will  yield  seed  in  autumn.” 


CUCUMBER. 


49 


CUCUMBER. 


Cucumis  sativa. — Concombre , Fr. — Gurke:  Ger. 

Among  the  varieties  of  this  species  of  plants,  are 


Early  Green  Cluster, 
Early  frame, 


Long  prickly, 
White  spined, 
Short  prickly, 

o i ^ 


Long  green  Turkey, 
Long  white  Turkey, 


Small  girkin,  or  West  India. 


Soil. — In  our  climate,  cucumbers  will  grow  in  any  soil,  though  not  with 
the  same  degree  of  vigor,  provided  they  b^  supplied  with  a sufficiency  of 
heat,  light,  water,  and  air.  It  is  an  object  with  many  market  gardeners 
and  others,  to  produce  cucumbers  at  an  early  period,  and  for  this  purpose  ar- 
tificial heat  is  necessary.  For  early  forcing,  Abercrombie  recommends  a 
mould  or  compost,  of  the  following  materials : “ one  third  of  rich  top  spit 
earth,  from  an  upland  pasture,  one  half  of  vegetable  mould,  and  one  sixth  of 
well  decomposed  horse-dung,  with  a small  quantity  of  sand. 

Time  of  beginning  to  force. — Abercrombie  says,  “Managers,  who  have  to 
provide  against  demands  for  early  cucumbers,  must  raise  seedlings  from 
twelve  to  ten  weeks  before  the  fruit  will  be  required,  according  to  the  length 
of  the  days  in  the  interval.  In  proportion  as  the  entire  course  embraces  a 
greater  part  of  mid  winter,  the  liability  of  failure  from  obstacles  in  the 
weather  will  be  greater.  The  last  fortnight  in  January,  or  first  week  of 
February,  is  a good  time  for  beginning  to  force  the  most  early  crop.  In  the 
subsequent  months,  both  main  and  secondary  crops  may  be  started  as  re- 
quired and  will  come  forward  more  freely.  To  have  a constant  succession, 
seedlings  should  be  originated  twice  a month.  As  the  course  of  forcing 
more  coincides  with  the  natural  growing  season,  the  length  of  it  will  be  re- 
duced to  eight,  seven,  or  six  weeks.”  Nicol  recommends  the  middle  of 
January.  He  says,  “Some  begin  sooner,  but  it  is  striving  hard  against  the 
stream  to  little  purpose.  If  the  dung  be  prepared,  and  the  bed  be  got  ready, 
so  as  to  sow  about  the  1st  of  February,  the  success  will  be  often  greater  than 
by  sowing  a month  earlier.”  Besides,  cucumbers,  produced  altogether  by 
the  heat  of  dung,  without  the  aid  of  the  sun,  are  less  wholesome  and  palat- 
able than  those  which  Nature  affords  in  the  due  course  of  her  operations. 

Sorts. — Abercrombie  recommends  “ the  short  prickly  for  very  early  fruit, 
and  the  long  prickly  kinds  for  the  chief  early  and  main  summer  crops.” 
M‘Phail  prefers  “ the  green  cucumber  with  black  prickles,  as  best  for 
forcing.  When  fit  for  table,  it  runs  from  six  to  nine  inches  long,  and,  when 
ripe,  runs  to  about  eighteen  or  twenty  inches  long.” 

Choice  of  seeds. — “ It  is  advisable,”  Abercrombie  observes,  “to  have  seed 
from  two,  at  least,  to  four  years  old,  in  preference  to  newer  seed,  which  is 


3 


50 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


apt  to  run  luxuriantly  in  vine,  and  the  plants  from  it  do  not  show  fruit  so 
soon  nor  so  abundantly  as  those  from  seed  of  a greater  age.  But  when  seed 
has  been  kept  more  than  four  years,  it  is  sometimes  found  to  be  too  much 
weakened.’*  Mr.  Armstrong  says,  “ A debate  has  long  existed,  on  the  pre- 
ference to  be  given  to  old  or  new  seeds,  and  which,  like  many  others,  appears 
to  be  interminable.  The  Abbe  Rozier  and  his  followers  think  that  the 
most  vigorous  plants  of  all  species  and  kinds  are  the  best,  and,  accordingly, 
prefer  new  seeds,  because  more  likely  to  produce  such  than  old  ones: 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  their  opponents  maintain,  that  plants  may  have  too 
much  vigor,  as  well  as  too  little ; and  that,  whenever  an  excess  of  vigor  exists, 
according  to  all  vegetable  analogy,  it  shows  itself  in  the  production  of  stems 
and  leaves,  not  in  that  of  flowers  and  fruits — whence  they  conclude,  that 
old  cucumber  seeds,  (like  those  of  all  the  rest  of  the  cucurbitacece  family,) 
are  better  than  new,  because  less  vigorous.  The  best  practical  use  to  be 
made  of  this  controversy  is  to  sow  old  seeds  in  the  spring , when  vegetation 
is  most  powerful,  and  new  ones  in  July  when  it  begins  to  abated 

Forcing  cucumbers. — “ Towards  the  latter  end  of  January,  a quantity  of 
fresh  horse  dung  should  be  procured  with  the  litter  among  it,  to  which  a 
small  portion  of  sea-coal  ashes  may  well  be  added.  In  the  course  of  four 
or  five  days,  the  dung  begins  to  heat,  when  a little  of  it  may  be  drawn  flat 
on  the  outside,  and  covered  two  inches  thick  with  good  earth  ; over  which  a 
bell  glass  ought  to  be  placed ; and  two  days  after,  when  the  soil  is  warm, 
the  seeds  should  be  sown,  covered  with  fresh  mould  one-fourth  of  an  inch 
thick,  and  the  glass  again  set  over  it.  This  must  be  screened  by  a mat  dur- 
ing the  night,  and  in  four  days  the  young  plants  will  germinate.  As  soon 
as  they  appear,  the  rest  of  the  dung  must  be  beaten  close  together  into  a bed 
for  one  or  two  more  lights,  which  bed  should  be  three  feet  thick,  and 
covered  three  inches  deep  with  fine,  fresh  earth  ; the  frame  is  then  to  be  put 
on  ; and  during  the  night,  or  in  bad  weather,  sheltered  with  mats.  When 
the  soil  is  hot  enough,  the  young  plants  must  be  removed  into  it,  and  set  at 
two  inches  distance,  the  glasses  being  occasionally  raised  to  admit  fresh  air, 
and  also  frequently  turned,  to  prevent  the  wet  steam  of  the  dung  from  drop- 
ping down  on  the  plants.  These  ought  to  be  watered  at  stated  times,  with 
tepid  or  luke-warm  water ; and.  as  they  increase  in  size,  should  be  earthed 
up;  an  operation  which  will  considerably  augment  their  strength  If  the 
bed  be  not  hot  enough,  fresh  litter  should  be  laid  round  its  sides ; but  if  it 
be  too  warm,  it  should  be  perforated  with  a stake  to  give  vent  to  the  heat ; 
and,  as  soon  as  the  bed  acquires  a proper  temperature,  the  holes  are  to  be 
closed  up  with  fresh  earth.  When  the  plants  begin  to  shoot  their  third  or 
rough  leaf,  another  bed  should  be  prepared  for  them,  similar  to  the  first ; and^ 
when  the  soil  is  thoroughly  warmed,  they  should  be  transplanted  into  it,  in 
holes  about  a foot  deep,  and  nine  inches  broad,  filled  with  light,  fine,  fresh 
mould,  laid  in  a hollow,  circular  form.  In  each  of  these  holes  four  plants 


CUCUMBER. 


51 


should  be  set,  and  shaded  for  two  or  three  days  from  the  heat  of  the  sun,  that 
they  may  strike  root;  after  which  time  it  will  be  useful  to  expose  them  to 
the  sun  and  air,  as  often  as  the  weather  will  permit.  When  they  have  at- 
tained the  height  of  four  or  five  inches,  they  should  be  gently  fastened  down 
to  the  soil,  in  different  directions ; and  the  branches  afterwards  produced 
ought  to  be  treated  in  a similar  manner,  as  it  will  much  contribute  to  for- 
ward their  maturity.  In  the  course  of  a month  the  flowers  will  appear,  and, 
shortly  after,  the  rudiments  of  the  fruit.  The  glasses  should  now  be  care- 
fully covered  during  the  night,  and  the  plants  gently  sprinkled  with  water  in 
the  day  time.  These  will  produce  fruit  till  midsummer,  and  may  be  suc- 
ceeded by  a second  crop,  which  is  to  be  raised  nearly  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  earlier  cucumbers,  with  this  only  difference,  that  the  former  should  be 
sown  toward  the  end  of  March,  or  the  beginning  of  April,  and  that  it  re- 
quires less  care  and  attention.” — Dom.  Encyc. 

The  smallest  degree  of  heat  for  forcing  cucumber  plants,  at  the  coldest 
time  of  night,  is  58  degrees  ; and  the  greatest  heat  necessary  in  the  day  time 
is  65  degrees. 

u Well  preparing  the  dung  is  of  the  greatest  importance  in  forcing  the  cu- 
cumber, and  if  not  done  before  it  is  made  into  a bed,  it  cannot  be  done  afteff 
as  it  requires  turning  and  watering  to  cause  it  to  ferment  freely  and  sweetly  ; 
fresh  dung  from  the  stable  will  require  at  least  six  weeks’  preparation  before 
it  will  be  fit  to  receive  the  plants.  A month  before  it  is  made  into  a bed,  it 
should  be  laid  into  a heap,  turned  three  times,  and  well  shaken  to  pieces 
with  a fork,  and  the  outsides  of  the  heap  turned  into  the  middle,  and  the  mid- 
dle to  the  outsides,  that  the  whole  may  have  a regular  fermentation ; and  if 
any  appear  dry,  it  should  be  made  wet,  keeping  it  always  between  the  two 
extremes  of  wet  and  dry.  A dry  spot  of  ground  should  be  chosen  to  prepare 
the  dung  on,  that  the  water  may  drain  away  from  the  bottom  of  the  heap. 
The  dung  having  been  a month  in  heap,  I make  the  bed  as  follows : — I form 
a stratum  one  foot  high,  of  wood  of  any  kind,  but  if  large  the  better ; (old 
roots  of  trees,  or  any  other  of  little  value  will  do ;)  this  is  to  drain  the  water 
from  the  bottom  of  the  bed  ; for,  after  a month’s  preparation,  with  every 
care,  it  will  frequently  heat  itself  dry,  and  require  water  in  large  quantities, 
which,  if  not  allowed  to  pass  off  freely,  will  cause  an  unwholesome  steam  to 
rise,  in  which  the  cucumber-plant  will  not  grow  freely:  on  this  bottom  of 
wood  I make  the  bed,  four  feet  high,  with  dung,  gently  beating  it  down  with 
a fork:  this  is  done  about  the  1st  November,  and  by  the  month  of  February, 
the  four  feet  of  dung  will  not  be  more  than  two  feet  thick,  which,  with  the  foot 
of  wood  at  the  bottom,  will  make  the  bed  three  feet  high ; this  I consider  a 
good  height,  for,  if  lower,  it  cannot  be  so  well  heated  by  linings,  which  is 
the  only  method  of  warming  it  in  the  months  of  February  and  March,  as  by 
that  time  the  first  heat  of  the  bed  will  have  quite  declined.  Having  made 
the  bed,  I put  on  the  frames  and  lights,  which  I shut  close  till  the  heat  rises. 


62 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


I then  give  air  night  and  day,  sufficient  to  allow  the  steam  to  pass  off,  and 
once  in  two  days  I fork  the  surface  over,  about  nine  inches  deep,  to  sweeten 
it,  and  if,  in  the  operation,  I find  any  part  dry,  I carefully  wet  it.  The  bed 
being  quite  sweet,  I prepare  it  for  the  mould,  by  making  the  middle  about 
eight  inches  lower  than  the  sides,  as  the  sides  are  liable,  from  the  weight  of 
the  frames,  to  settle  faster  than  the  middle,  which  often  causes  the  hills  of 
earth  to  crack,  by  which  the  roots  of  the  plants  are  greatly  injured  V — Hort. 
Trans,  vol.  iii,  p.  147. 

Mr.  Cobbett  says,  If  you  wish  to  have  cucumbers  a month  earlier  than 
the  natural  ground  will  bring  them,  do  this : — Make  a hole,  and  put  into  it  a 
little  hot  dung;  let  the  hole  be  under  a warm  fence.  Put  six  inches  deep  of 
fine  rich  earth  on  the  dung.  Sow  a parcel  of  seeds  in  this  earth  ; and  cover 
at  night  with  a bit  of  carpet,  or  sail-cloth,  having  first  fixed  some  hoops  over 
this  little  bed.  Before  the  plants  show  the  rough  leaf,  plant  two  into  a little 
flower-pot,  and  fill  as  many  pots  in  this  way  as  you  please.  Have  a larger 
bed  ready  to  put  the  pots  into,  and  covered  with  earth,  so  that  the  pots  may 
be  plunged  in  the  earth  up  to  their  tops.  Cover  this  bed  like  the  last.  When 
the  plants  have  got  two  rough  leaves  out,  they  will  begin  to  make  a shoot  in 
^he  middle.  Pinch  that  short  off.  Let  them  stand  in  this  bed,  till  your  cu- 
cumbers sown  in  the  natural  ground  come  up ; then  make  some  little  holes  in 
good,  rich  land,  and,  taking  a pot  at  a time,  turn  out  the  ball , and  fix  it  in  the 
hole.  These  plants  will  bear  a month  sooner  than  those  sown  in  the  natural 
ground ; and  a square  yard  will  contain  thirty-six  pots,  and  will,  of  course, 
furnish  plants  for  thirty-six  hills  of  cucumbers,  which,  if  well  managed,  will 
keep  on  bearing  till  September.  Those  who  have  hot-bed  frames , or  hand- 
lights, , will  do  this  matter  very  easily.  The  cucumber  plant  is  very  tender 
and  juicy ; and,  therefore,  when  the  seedlings  are  put  into  the  pots,  they 
should  be  watered  and  shaded  for  a day  or  two ; when  the  balls  are  turned 
into  the  ground,  they  should  be  watered , and  shaded  with  a bough  for  one 
day.  That  will  be  enough. — I have  one  observation  to  make  upon  the  cul- 
tivation of  cucumbers,  melons  of  all  sorts,  and  that  of  all  the  pumpkin  and 
squash  tribe ; and  that  is,  that  it  is  a great  error  to  sow  them  too  thick.  One 
plant  in  a hill  is  enough  ; and  I would  put  two  into  a pot , merely  as  a bar 
against  accidents.  One  will  bring  more  weight  of  fruit  than  two,  (if  stand- 
ing near  each  other,)  two  more  than  three,  and  so  on,  till  you  come  to  fifty 
in  a square  foot ; and  then  you  will  have  no  fruit  at  all ! Let  any  one  make 
the  experiment,  and  he  will  find  this  observation  mathematically  true. 
When  cucumbers  are  left  eight  or  ten  plants  in  a hill,  they  never  shoot 
strongly.  Their  vines  are  poor  and  weak.  The  leaves  become  yellow ; and, 
if  they  bear  at  all,  it  is  poor,  tasteless  fruit  that  they  produce.  Their  bear- 
ing is  over  in  a few  weeks.  Whereas,  a single  plant,  in  the  same  space,  will 
send  its  fine  green  vines  all  around  it  to  a great  distance,  and,  if  no  fruit  be 
left  to  ripen , will  keep  bearing  till  the  white  frosts  come  in  the  fall. — The 


CUCUMBER. 


53 


roots  of  a cucumber  will  go  ten  feet,  in  fine  earth,  in  every  direction.  Judge 
then,  how  ten  plants,  standing  close  to  one  another,  must  produce  mutual 
starvation ! ” 

Mr.  Armstrong  has  the  following  observations  with  regard  to  early  cu- 
cumbers : u To  obtain  these,  we  must  have  recourse  to  artificial  heat ; and 
with  the  less  reluctance,  as,  of  all  plants,  the  cucumber  is  that  with  which 
it  best  agrees.  To  this  end,  therefore,  scoop  as  many  large  turnips  as  you 
propose  to  have  hills;  fill  these  with  good  garden  mould,  sow  in  each  three 
or  four  seeds,  and  plunge  them  into  a hot-bed.  The  advantage  of  the 
scooped  turnip,  as  a seed-bed,  over  pots  or  vases,  will  now  appear;  for,  in- 
stead of  the  ordinary  difficulty  of  separating  the  mass  of  earth  and  the  plant 
from  the  pot  that  contained  them,  and  without  injury  to  either,  we  re-enter 
both  pot  and  plant,  and  even  find  in  the  one  an  additional  nutriment  for  the 
other.  The  subsequent  treatment  does  not  differ  at  all  from  that  of  plants 
sown  and  cultivated  in  the  open  air.?? — Mem.  of  N.  Y.  Board  of  Agr.  vol.  ii, 
p.  115. 

Training. — To  force  the  cucumbers  into  early  fruit,  Abercrombie  directs 
to  “ stop  the  runners  as  soon  as  the  plants  have  made  two  rough  leaves  : as 
the  bud  that  produces  the  runner  is  disclosed  at  the  base  of  the  second  rough 
leaf,  it  may  be  cut  off  or  picked  out ; or,  if  the  runner  has  already  started,  it 
may  be  pinched  off  close.  This  is  called  stopping  at  the  first  joint,  and  is 
necessary  to  promote  a stronger,  stocky  growth,  and  an  emission  of  fruitful 
laterals ; and  from  these  the  prolific  runners  will  be  successively  produced. 
The  vines,  without  the  process  of  stopping,  would  generally  be  both  weaker, 
and  so  deficient  in  fertile  runners,  that  they  would  sometimes  extend  two  or 
three  feet  without  showing  fruit.  When  plants,  which  have  been  once 
stopped,  have  extended  the  first  runners  to  three  joints  without  showing 
fruit,  they  are  to  be  again  stopped  for  the  purpose  of  strengthening  the  plant, 
and  disposing  it  for  bearing.  As  fertile  runners  extend,  train  them  out  regu- 
larly along  the  surface,  fastening  them  down  neatly  with  pegs.?? 

Upright  training. — Cucumber  plants  being  climbers  by  means  of  their 
tendrils,  some  branchy  sticks  being  placed  to  any  advancing  runners,  they 
will  ascend,  and  produce  fruit  at  a distance  from  the  ground,  of  a cl^an 
growth,  free  from  spots,  and  well  flavored.  u Mr.  J.  W.  of  Philadelphia  in- 
formed Dr.  Mease,  that  he  enriched  the  ground  near  the  trunk  of  a peach 
tree,  and  sowed  some  cucumber  seed,  which  came  up  very  abundantly.  He 
pulled  up  all  the  plants  but  one,  and  permitted  the  vine  to  run  up  the  tree. 
It  bore  150  cucumbers.  The  numerous  creepers  with  which  the  cucumber 
abounds,  and  the  result  of  this  experiment,  would  seem  to  point  out  the 
climbing  nature  of  the  plant,  and  the  great  advantage  arising  from  permit- 
ting it  to  attach  itself  to  a frame  or  tree,  instead  of  confining  it  to  the 
ground.” — Bom.  Encyc. 

Setting  the  fruit. — “ The  cucumber,”  Abercrombie  observes,  u bears  male 


54 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


and  female  blossoms  distinctly  on  the  same  plant.  The  latter  only  produce 
the  fruit,  which  appears  first  in  miniature,  close  under  the  base,  even  before 
the  flower  expands.  There  is  never  any  in  the  males;  but  these  are  placed 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  females,  and  are  absolutely  necessary,  by  the  disper- 
sion of  their  farina,  to  impregnate  the  female  blossom  ; the  fruit  of  -which 
will  not  otherwise  swell  to  its  full  size,  and  the  seeds  will  be  abortive. 
The  early  plants  under  glass,  not  having  the  full  current  of  the  natural  air, 
nor  the  assistance  of  bees  and  other  winged  insects  to  convey  the  farina,  the 
artificial  aid  *of  the  cultivator  is  necessary  to  effect  the  impregnation.  At 
the  time  of  fructification,  watch  the  plants  daily ; and  as  soon  as  a female 
flower  and  some  male  blossoms  are  fully  expanded,  proceed  to  set  the  fruit 
the  same  day,  or  next  morning  at  furthest.  Take  off  a male  blossom,  de- 
taching it  with  part  of  the  footstalk.  Hold  this  between  the  finger  and 
thumb;  pull  away  the  flower-leaf  close  to  the  stamens  and  anthera  or  cen- 
tral part,  which  apply  close  to  the  stigma  or  bosom  of  the  female  flower, 
twirling  it  a little  about,  to  discharge  thereon  some  particles  of  the  fertiliz- 
ing powder.  Proceed  thus  to  set  every  fruit,  as  the  flowers  of  both  sorts 
open,  while  of  a lively,  full  expansion ; and  generally  perform  it  in  the 
early  part  of  the  day ; using  a fresh  male,  if  possible,  for  each  impregnation, 
as  the  males  are  usually  more  abundant  than  the  female  blossoms  In  con- 
sequence, the  young  fruit  will  soon  be  observed  to  swell  freely.  Cucumbers 
attain  the  proper  size  for  gathering  in  about  fifteen,  eighteen,  or  twenty  days 
from  the  time  of  setting ; and  often  in  succession,  for  two  or  three  months  or 
more,  in  the  same  bed,  by  good  culture.  The  above  artificial  operation  will 
be  found  both  necessary  and  effectual  in  forcing  the  cucumber,  between  the 
decline  of  autumn  and  May,  while  the  plants  are  mostly  shut  under  glass. 
In  plants  more  freely  exposed  to  the  free  air,  in  the  increasing  warmth  of 
spring,  and  in  having  the  full  open  air  in  summer,  from  June  or  July  till 
September,  the  impregnation  is  effected  mostly  or  wholly  by  nature.  The 
male  flowers,  being  by  some  ignorantly  denominated  false  blossoms,  are  often 
plucked  wholly  off  as  useless,  under  a notion  of  strengthening  the  plant : but 
this  should  not  be  generally  done.  Where  crowded  too  thick  in  clusters, 
some  may  be  thinned  out  moderately  ; but  their  agency  being  absolutely 
necessary  in  fertilizing  the  females,  they  should  only  be  displaced  as  they 
begin  to  decay,  except  where  they  are  superabundant.” 

Principal  summer  crop. — “ The  ground  being  dug  and  smoothed,  line  it  into 
squares  of  six  feet.  In  the  center  of  each,  dig  a hole  about  fourteen  inches 
deep ; fill  this  with  well  rotted  dung,  and  sow  on  it  five  or  six  cucumber 
seeds : cover  these  with  mould,  and,  when  they  rise  and  take  a rough  leaf, 
select  two  to  each  hill,  and  draw  out  the  remainder.  This  sowing  cannot  be 
safely  made  in  our  climate  till  the  10th  of  May.  For  the  fall  and  pickling 
crops,  you  must  sow  the  first  or  second  week  in  July.” — Armstrong. 

Those  cucumbers,  which  are  sowed  as  late  as  July,  will  not  require  top- 


CUCUMBER. 


55 


ping  or  cutting  off  the  runners  as  before  directed,  for  at  this  season  vegetation 
will  be  less  vigorous  and  there  will  be  less  danger  of  the  plant  running  too 
much  to  vine. 

Raising  plants  from  cuttings . — “ Instead  of  raising  cucumber  plants  from 
seed,  they  may  be  raised  from  cuttings,  and  thus  kept  on  from  year  to  year 
in  the  following  manner : — Take  a shoot  that  is  just  ready  for  stopping,  cut 
it  off  just  below  the  joint,  behind  the  joint  before  which  the  shoot  should 
have  been  stopped  ; then  cut  smooth  the  lower  end  of  the  shoot  or  cutting, 
and  stick  it  into  fine  leaf  or  other  rich  mould  about  an  inch  deep,  and  give  it 
plenty  of  heat,  and  shade  it  from  the  rays  of  the  sun  till  it  be  fairly  struck. 
By  this  method,  as  well  as  by  that  of  laying,  cucumbers  may  be  propagated. 

“ Mfiarns,  gardener  at  Shobden  Court,  near  Leominster,  propagates  his 
cucumber-plants  for  a winter  crop  in  this  way,  and  w finds  that  the  plants 
raised  from  cuttings  are  less  succulent,  and  therefore  do  not  so  readily  damp 
off,  or  suffer  from  the  low  temperature  to  which  they  are  liable  to  be  ex- 
posed in  severe  weather : that  they  come  into  bearing  immediately,  as  they 
have  formed  roots  of  sufficient  strength  to  support  their  fruit,  and  do  not  run 
so  much  to  barren  vine  as  seedlings  are  apt  to  do.’ 7 He  takes  the  cuttings 
from  the  tops  of  the  bearing  shoots,  and  plants  them  in  pots  nine  inches  deep, 
half  filled  with  mould.  He  then  waters  them,  covers  the  tops  of  the  pots 
with  flat  pieces  of  glass,  and  plunges  them  into  a gentle  bottom  heat.  “The 
sides  of  the  pot  act  as  a sufficient  shade  for  the  cuttings  during  the  time  they 
are  striking,  and  the  flat  glass,  in  this  and  other  operations,  answers  all  the 
purposes  of  bell-glasses.  The  cuttings  form  roots,  and  are  ready  to  put  off  in 
less  than  a fortnight.’* — JHort.  Trans,  vol.  iv,  p 411. 

Cucumbers  increased  by  layers. — “ As  soon  as  several  flower-buds  appear 
on  a plant,  bend  the  second  or  third  joint  of  a branch  below  the  blossom, 
fasten  it  firmly  into  the  ground,  and  cut  off  the  capillary  point  of  the  plant ; 
it  speedily  takes  root,  and  must  be  separated  from  the  parent  stock;  as  each 
root  has  only  to  supply  a few  fruits  with  nourishment,  it  saves  room,  labor 
and  time,  and  affords  a constant  supply  for  eight,  twelve,  and  more  months, 
which  is  not  so  liable  to  degenerate  as  if  they  were  raised  from  a variety  of 
seeds.” — Gleanings  in  Husbandry. 

Culture. — In  the  culture  of  all  the  crops,  give  proper  supplies  of  water  in 
dry,  warm  weather,  two  or  three  times  a week,  or  every  day  when  very 
warm  and  dry.  If  the  heat  in  the  hot-beds,  after  three  or  four  weeks  or 
more,  be  much  declined,  and  the  nights  or  general  season  remain  cold,  let  a 
moderate  lining  of  hot  dung  be  applied  to  both  sides  ; which  will  not  only 
cause  a reviving  heat,  but  widen  the  bed  for  the  roots  and  runners  of  the 
plants  to  extend. 

Insects. — “ The  fly,  which  is  often  very  destructive  to  cucumbers,  melons 
and  pumpkins,  may  be  killed  by  sprinkling  a mixture  of  tobacco  water  and 
red  pepper  over  the  vines.” — Dom.  Encyc.  Sprinkle  the  plants  with  a strong 


56 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


infusion  of  elder  leaves  ; that  of  hops  and  of  walnut-leaves  is  likewise  re- 
commended ; or,  suspend  a diamond-formed  piece  of  white  paper,  shingle,  or 
other  piece  of  wood,  by  a thread,  tied  to  the  end  of  a stick  stuck  in  the 
ground  at  a small  distance  from  the  hill,  so  that  the  paper  shall  hang  directly 
over  the  hill  and  near  the  plants.  The  air,  by  constantly  vibrating  the  paper 
or  shingle,  will  have  a tendency  to  prevent  insects  from  alighting  on  the 
plants.  The  surest  way,  however,  is  to  inclose  the  hills  with  frames  cov- 
ered with  gauze,  or  other  cloth  of  a light  texture.  The  following  method  of 
making  sieves,  or  boxes,  to  protect  cucumber  vines,  melon  vines,  &c.  against 
the  yellow  bug,  &c.  was  communicated  to  the  editor  of  the  N.  E.  Farmer  by 
Mr.  Levi  Bartlett,  of  Warner,  N.  H.,  and  published  in  that  paper,  vol.  ii, 
p.  305. 

“ Take  a strip  of  pine  board  (about  three  fourths  of  an  inch  in  thickness 
is  most  suitable)  eight  or  ten  feet  in  length,  and  four  or  five  inches  in  width 
— plow  one  edge  of  it  with  a carpenter’s  plow  or  match  plane — then  mark 
off  an  equal  number  of  side  and  end  pieces  ; before  sawing  the  side  pieces, 
run  a brad-awl  through  where  you  want  to  drive  your  nails,  as  it  is  not  so 
likely  to  split  as  after  it  is  sawed.  The  side  pieces  eleven  inches  long — 
ends  eight  inches  long.  They  must  be  of  this  particular  size,  because  one 
yard  of  millinet  will  just  cover  nine  boxes ; or  a third  of  a yard  will  make 
three  covers.  After  having  nailed  your  boxes,  and  divided  your  millinet, 
have  some  thin  strips  or  tongues,  as  the  carpenters  call  them.  Press  these 
with  the  edges  of  the  covers  into  the  groove,  which  fastens  them  much 
cheaper  and  more  expeditiously  than  small  nails.  I made  about  twenty 
last  season,  and  they  effectually  secured  them  from  the  yellow  bug,  and  (by 
sinking  the  edges  of  them  in  the  earth  a little)  from  worms.  But  if  they 
were  of  no  use  but  to  guard  against  insects,  they  would  be  worth  having,  as 
they  keep  off  the  cold  winds,  and  greatly  promote  the  growth  of  the  vines 
in  the  early  part  of  the  season.” 

To  save  seed. — “ Select  some  best  summer  fruit  from  good,  productive 
plants,  which  permit  to  continue  in  full  growth  till  they  become  yellow. 
Then  cut  them  from  the  vine,  and  place  them  upright  on  end,  in  the  full 
sun,  for  two  or  three  weeks,  when  they  may  be  cut  open,  and  the  seed 
washed  out  from  the  pulp;  spread  it  to  dry  and  harden;  then  put  it  up  in 
papers  or  bags  for  future  sowing.  It  will  remain  good  for  many  years  ; and 
seed  of  three  or  four  years’  keeping  is  preferable  for  early  frame  crops.”— 
Abercrombie. 

Uses. — “ Cucumbers  are  a salubrious,  cooling  fruit,  and  may  be  safely 
allowed  to  consumptive  patients,  as  they  sweeten  acrid  humors,  at  the  same 
time  are  gently  laxative  ; but  being  in  a considerable  degree  acescent,  and 
sometimes  attended  with  flatulency  and  diarrhea,  such  effects  may  be  pre- 
vented by  eating  them  with  great  moderation,  or  with  the  addition  of  vine- 
gar and  pepper,  which  counteract  their  natural  coldness.  If  properly  pickled 


EGG  PLANT. 


57 


(without  coloring  them  with  that  poisonous  metal,  copper,  or  rendering 
tnem  too  acrid  with  stimulant  spices.)  they  are  an  excellent  antiseptic ; yet 
we  consider  them  highly  improper  either  for  children  or  wet  nurses.” — 
Dom.  Encyc. 


DANDELION. 

•4 

Leontodon  Taraxacum. 

This  is  a hardy  perennial  plant,  which  is  found  growing  spontaneously  in 
Great  Britain  and  the  United  States.  Loudon  says  that  this  vegetable, 
“though  regularly  produced  in  London  market,  is  seldom  or  never  cultivated, 
being  generally  to  be  found  in  sufficient  luxuriance  by  the  sides  of  hedges 
and  dry  ditches.  It  might  easily  be  propagated  either  by  seeds  or  roots , 
and,  if  introduced  as  a garden  plant,  should  have  a rich,  deep  soil,  and  be 
carefully  tied  up  and  earthed  round  to  blanch  it  effectually.  Cut  off  all  the 
flowers  as  they  appear,  to  prevent  the  dispersion  of  the  seed  and  the  weak- 
ening of  the  plant.  When  salad  is  scarce,  the  dandelion  might  be  dug  up 
from  road-sides  in  winter,  and  forced  in  pots  like  succory. 

“ Use. — The  leaves  in  early  spring,  when  just  unfolding,  afford  a very 
good  ingredient  in  salads.  The  French  sometimes  eat  the  young  roots,  and 
the  etiolated  [blanched  or  whitened]  leaves  with  thin  slices  of  bread  and 
butter.  When  blanched,  the  leaves  considerably  resemble  those  of  endive 
in  taste.  The  root  is  considered  an  equally  good  substitute  for  coffee  as  chic- 
ory, and  may,  like  that  plant,  be  stored  in  cellars  and  barrels,  for  producing 
winter  salad.” — Caled.  Hort.  Mem.  iv,  138.  In  this  country,  the  dandelion 
has,  we  believe,  been  used  for  greens,  or  pot-herbs  only,  and  we  have  never 
known  it  subjected  to  cultivation. 


EGG-PLANT. 

Solarium  Melongena. — Melongene , Fr. — Tollapfel , Ger. 

“ There  are  two  varieties  of  this  plant,  the  white-fruited  and  the  purple, 
cultivated  for  culinary  purposes ; the  latter  kind  is  preferable,  and,  when 
sliced  and  nicely  fried,  approaches,  both  in  taste  and  flavor,  nearer  to  that  ot 
a very  nice  fried  oyster  than,  perhaps,  any  other  plant. 

u This  delicious  vegetable  may  be  propagated  by  sowing  the  seed  on  a 
slight  hot-bed  the  beginning  of  April  or  in  March ; and  towards  the  latter 


58 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


part  of  May  they  should  be  planted  in  a rich,  warm  piece  of  ground,  at  the 
distance  of  two  feet  and  a half  asunder,  every  way,  for  the  purple,  or  two 
feet  for  the  white  kind ; and  if  kept  clean,  and  a little  earth  be  drawn  up  to 
their  stems,  when  about  a foot  high,  they  will  produce  plenty  of  fruit.  Or, 
the  seed  may  be  sown  about  the  end  of  April,  on  a warm  border,  and 
planted  out  finally  the  beginning  of  June  ; but  these  will  be  rather  late,  and 
not  produce  fruit  so  abundantly,  in  the  Middle  or  Eastern  States  as  by  the 
former  method.” — ML  Mahon. 


ENDIVE. 

Chicorium  Endivia . — Ckicoree , Fr. — Endivie , Ger. 

The  endive  is  a hardy  annual,  a native  of  China  and  Japan,  and  intro- 
duced into  Great  Britain  in  1548.  The  varieties  are 

Green  curled  leaves,  j White  curled  leaves.  | Broad-leaved  Batavian. 

Estimate  of  sorts. — “ All  the  sorts  are  eligible  for  culture  ; but  allot,  prin- 
cipally, the  green  curled  for  the  main  crops  of  autumn  and  winter  endive, 
this  being  of  the  most  stocky,  full  growth,  and  hardiest  to  stand  severe 
weather.  As  to  the  others,  allot  a smaller  portion  of  the  white  curled  for 
early  summer  and  autumn  use  ; of  the  broad-leaved  kind,  provide  a mode- 
rate crop  for  autumn,  till  November  or  December ; being  by  some  esteemed 
preferable  for  stews  and  soups,  though  not  much  used  in  salads.” 

Propagation. — All  the  varieties  are  raised  from  seed,  of  which,  for  a seed- 
bed four  feet  by  ten  in  length,  half  an  ounce  is  sufficient. 

Times  of  sowing. — 14  The  proper  seasons  are — May,  for  a smaller  early 
crop,  and  principally  June  and  July  to  the  beginning  of  August;  for  full  and 
successive  crops,  all  autumn  and  winter,  till  the  following  spring : for,  if 
sown  earlier  than  the  middle  of  May  or  beginning  of  June,  they  will  mostly 
run  to  stalk  the  same  season  before  attaining  mature,  useful  growth.  If  any 
are  required  for  early  young  summer  endive,  sow  only  a small  portion  of 
the  white  curled  in  April  or  May,  as  the  plants  will  soon  run  to  seed.  In 
the  middle  or  towards  the  end  of  May,  you  may  begin  sowing  moderately 
of  the  different  sorts;  but  do  not  sow  fully  till  nearly  the  middle  of  June, 
that  the  plants  may  stand  without  running  to  seed  the  same  year.  About 
the  twelfth  and  twenty-fifth  of  that  month,  also  at  the  beginning  and  middle 
of  July,  sow  the  main  and  successive  crops,  for  autumn  and  winter;  and  a 
finer  smaller  sowing  about  the  beginning  of  August,  for  late  supplies  in  the 
end  of  winter  and  following  spring. 


FENNEL. 


59 


FENNEL. 


Anethum  Fceniculum. — L ’’AnetJi,  Fr. — DillJcraut , Ger. 


u The  fennel  is  a perennial  plant,  naturalized  in  England,  and  found  in 
chalky  soils.  The  plant  rises  with  finely  cut  leaves,  and  capillary  leaflets, 
on  a smooth,  dark- green,  branched,  tubular  stalk,  to  the  height  of  five  or  six 
feet.  On  the  summit  are  produced  umbels  of  gold- colored  flowers,  in  July 
and  August.  The  whole  plant  is  aromatic,  and  has  long  been  an  inmate  of 
the  garden. 

u Use. — The  tender  stalks  of  common  fennel  are  used  in  salads;  the  leaves, 
boiled,  enter  into  many  fish  sauces ; and,  raw,  are  garnishes  for  several 
dishes.  The  blanched  stalks  of  the  variety  called  finochio  are  eaten  with 
oil,  vinegar  and  pepper,  as  a cold  salad,  and  they  are  likewise  sometimes 
put  into  soups. 

“ The  varieties  are — 


The  common,  or  sweet, 
Dark-green-leaved, 

Dwarf,  or  finochio.  This  variety  is  char- 
acterized by  a tendency  in  the  stalk  to 
swell  to  a considerable  thickness.  This 
thickened  part  is  blanched  by  earthing 
up,  and  is  then  very  tender.  ‘ Owing 


to  the  peculiar  nature  of  this  variety,’ 
Neill  observes,  * it  is  more  tender  than 
the  common  fennel,  and  often  perishes 
in  the  course  of  the  w’inter.  Misled  by 
this  circumstance,  several  horticultural 
writers  describe  it  as  an  annual  species, 
under  the  appellation  A.  segetum. 


w Propagation. — They  are  all  raised  from  seed,  of  which  half  an  ounce  is 
sufficient  for  a seed-bed  four  feet  by  six  feet.  Sometimes,  also,  they  are 
raised  from  offsets  from  the  old  plants,  where  only  a few  are  wanted.  1 Sow 
in  the  spring  in  light  earth,  either  in  drills  from  six  to  twelve  inches  apart, 
or  broad-cast  and  raked  in.  When  the  plants  are  three  or  four  inches  high, 
thin  or  transplant  a quantity  fifteen  inches  asunder.  As  the  roots  of  old 
plants  divide  into  side  offsets,  these  may  be  slipped  off  in  spring,  summer, 
or  autumn,  and  planted  a foot  apart.  They  will  produce  immediate  leaves 
for  present  supply,  and  in  continuance  ; or,  for  an  immediate  larger  supply 
of  leaves,  you  may  procure  some  established  full  roots,  and  plant  as  above. 
Let  them  be  well  watered.7 

44  Subsequent  culture. — ; The  same  plants  remain  several  years  by  the  root ; 
but  as  fennel  sends  up  strong  stems  for  seed  in  summer,  these,  or  a part  of 
them,  should  be  cut  down,  to  encourage  a production  of  young  leaves  below, 
in  succession.  It  is  apt  to  spread  more  than  is  desirable,  if  suffered  to  seed. 
The  swelling  stems  of  the  finochio  variety,  when  of  some  tolerable  sub- 
stance, should  be  earthed  up  on  each  side  five  or  six  inches,  to  blanch  them 
white  and  tender.  This  will  be  effected  in  ten  days  or  a fortnight ; and,  by 


60 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


successive  sowings,  or  cutting  down  plants  during  summer,  successive  crops 
of  blanched  stalks  may  be  had  from  June  to  December.’ 
u To  save  seed. — ‘ Permit  some  of  the  best  stalks  to  shoot ; they  will  pro- 
duce large  umbels  of  seed  in  autumn.’ — Abercrombie .” — Loudon. 


| LEEK. 

Allium  P or  rum. — Porreau , Fr. — Lauch , Ger. 

The  leek  is  a hardy  biennial,  a native  of  Switzerland.  The  stem  rises 
three  feet,  and  is  leafy  at  bottom ; the  leaves  an  inch  wide. 

The  narrow-leaved,  or  Flanders  leek  ; I The  broad-leaved,  or  tall,  London  leek. 
The  Scotch,  or  flag,  or  Musselburgh  leek  ; I 

Propagation. — “ From  seed ; and,  for  a bed  four  feet  wide  by  eight  in 
length,  one  ounce  is  requisite.” 

Soil  and  site. — u The  soil  should  be  light  and  rich,  lying  on  a dry  sub-soil. 
A rank  soil  does  not  suit  it,  so  that,  when  manure  is  necessary,  well  reduced 
dung,  mixed  with  road  drift,  is  better  than  dung  alone.  The  situation 
should  be  open.  Let  the  ground  be  dug  in  the  previous  autumn,  ready  for 
sowing  in  the  spring.  For  the  principal  crop  allot  beds  four  or  five  feet 
wide,  and  sow  in  drills,  about  sixteen  inches  apart.  A small  crop  may  be 
sown  thinly  with  a main  crop  of  onions,  and  when  the  latter  are  drawn  off, 
the  leeks  will  have  room  for  full  growth.’ 

Times  of  sowing. — u A small  first  crop  may  be  sown  as  soon  as  the  ground 
is  dry  enough,  and  the  weather  sufficiently  mild  in  the  spring.  The  princi- 
pal crop  should  be  sown  the  last  of  April  or  the  beginning  of  May.” 

Course  of  culture. — u When  the  plants  are  three  or  four  inches  high,  weed 
them  clean,  and  thin  them  where  too  much  crowded.  Water  well  in  dry, 
hot  .weather.  The  leek  is  much  improved  in  size  by  transplanting;  and 
those  designed  for  that  purpose  will  be  fit  to  remove  when  from  six  to  ten 
inches  high.  For  this  purpose,  take  out  a quantity,  regularly,  from  the 
seed-bed,  either  in  showery  weather,  or  after  watering  the  ground.  Trim 
the  long,  weak  tops  of  the  leaves,  and  the  roots  and  fibers,  and  plant  them 
by  dibble,  in  rows,  from  nine  to  twelve  inches  asunder,  by  six  or  eight 
inches  in  the  row,  inserting  them  nearly  down  to  the  leaves,  or  with  the 
neck  part  mostly  into  the  ground,  to  whiten  it  a proportionate  length. 
Press  the  earth  to  the  fibers  with  the  dibbler,  but  leave  the  stem  as  loose  as 
possible,  and,  as  it  were,  standing  in  the  center  of  a hollow  cylinder.  Give 
water  if  the  weather  be  dry.  Those  remaining  in  the  seed-bed  thin  to  six 
or  eight  inches  distance.  Keep  the  whole  clear  from  weeds.  In  hoeing, 


LETTUCE. 


61 


loosen  the  ground  about  the  plants,  to  promote  their  free,  vigorous  growth. 
Some  plant  in  hollow  drills,  and  earth  up,  as  in  celery  culture,  which  pro- 
duces very  large  stems.” 

To  save  seed . — “Transplant  some  best,  full  plants,  early  in  the  spring,  in  a 
sunny  situation,  or  in  a row  near  a south  fence.  They  will  shoot  in  sum- 
mer, in  single,  tall  seed-stalks.  Support  them,  as  necessary,  with  stakes  ; 
and  they  will  produce  ripe  seed  in  September.  Cut  the  ripe  heads  w'ith 
part  of  the  stalk  to  each ; tie  two  or  three  together,  and  hang  up  under 
cover,  to  dry  and  harden  the  seed  thoroughly,  when  it  may  be  rubbed  out, 
cleaned,  and  put  by  for  future  service.” — Abercrombie. 

Use — “The  whole  plant  is  used  in  soups  and  stews,  but  the  blanched 
stem  is  most  esteemed.  Leeks  formerly  constituted  an  ingredient  in  the 
dish  called  porridge,  which  some  suppose  to  be  derived  from  the  Latin  por- 
rumT — Loudon. 

“The  leaves  of  this  plant  possess  a flavor  similar  to  that  of  onions; 
affording  a constant  dish  at  the  table  of  the  Egyptians,  who  chop  them  up 
small,  and  eat  them  with  their  meat.  They  are  also  in  great  esteem  among 
the  Welsh : and  their  general  utility,  as  a wholesome  pot-herb,  renders  them 
a valuable  culinary  spice.” — Willich. 


LETTUCE. 

Lactuca  Sativa . — Laitue , Fr. — Gartensalat , Ger. 


Lettuce  is  a hardy  annual  plant,  introduced  or  cultivated  in  England  in 
1562,  but  from  what  quarter  is  not  known. 

Varieties. — These  are  very  numerous;  and,  from  their  names,  many  of 
them  appear  to  have  come  originally  from  the  Greek  Islands,  and  the  coast 
of  the  Levant.  Those  mentioned  in  Mr.  Russell’s  Catalogue  are — 


Early  curled  Silesia, 

Large  green-head,  or  cabbage, 
Royal  cape  ( superior  quality ), 
India  Lettuce  (fine), 

Imperial  cabbage, 

Hardy  green, 

Brown  Dutch  cabbage, 


Grand  admiral  (large  fine  cabbage), 
Tennis-ball,  or  rose, 

Magnum  bonum  Cos, 

Brighton  Cos, 

Icc  Cos, 

White  Cos,  or  loaf, 

Green  Cos. 


Estimate  of  sorts. — The  cabbage  lettuces  are  round-leaved,  growing  in  a 
compact,  full  head,  of  squat  form,  close  to  the  ground.  All  the  Cos  lettuces, 
in  their  general  growth,  are  more  or  less  upright,  of  an  oblong  shape.  Both 
kinds  have  white,  close,  firm  heads,  when  in  perfection ; the  varieties  reach 
maturity  from  June  till  September.  Meanwhile,  they  are  occasionally 


62 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


Used  in  young,  open  growth.  In  a very  young  state,  the  cabbage-lettuces 
have  a milder,  more  agreeable  taste  than  the  Cos ; but  when  both  classes 
are  full  grown,  the  flavor  of  the  Cos  is  preferred  for  salads,  while  the  cab- 
bage kinds  are  more  used  for  soups. 

Propagation. — From  seed,  of  which,  for  a seed-bed  four  feet  wide  by  ten 
feet  in  length,  a quarter  of  an  ounce  is  sufficient,  and  will  produce  upwards 
of  four  hundred  plants. 

Soil  and  situation. — “ All  the  sorts  grow  freely  on  any  rich,  mellow  soil, 
where  the  sub-soil  is  dry.  For  the  most  part,  raise  this  vegetable  as  a prin- 
cipal crop,  on  beds  set  apart  for  it,  and  keep  the  varieties  separate ; but  to 
multiply  the  supplies  throughout  summer,  portions  may  be  sown,  thinly  in- 
termixed with  principal  crops  of  leeks,  onions,  carrots,  and  spinage,  which 
will  come  off  before  the  lettuces  are  full  grown ; also  with  any  young  peren- 
nials, which  stand  at  wide  intervals.” 

Times  of  sowing. — To  obtain  a constant  supply  of  good  lettuce,  it  is  ser- 
viceable to  sow  every  month,  from  February  (or  the  opening  of  spring)  to 
July,  for  the  main  summer  and  autumn  crops.  For  late  autumn  crops,  you 
may  sow  in  August,  and  if  you  have'  hot-beds,  frames,  &c.,  you  may  sow  in 
September,  and  so  on,  through  the  fall  and  winter.  Early  spring  lettuce 
may  be  sowed  so  late  in  the  fall  as  not  to  come  up  till  spring. 

Process  of  sowing. — Abercrombie  says,  “ The  ground  should  have  been 
broken  in  the  previous  digging.  Sow  broad-cast,  moderately  thin ; rake  in 
lightly,  and  very  even.”  Others  direct  to  sow  in  drills,  from  a foot  to  six- 
teen inches  apart.  Armstrong  observes,  that  “ the  straight-leafed  sort  is 
best  cultivated  in  broad-cast,  and  does  not  require  transplanting ; but  that 
the  curled  and  head-lettuce  cannot  succeed  without  it.” 

Management  of  the  summer  crop. — “ In  the  successive  crops,  raised  from 
the  opening  of  spring  till  the  close  of  summer,  when  the  plants  reach  about 
two,  three,  or  four  inches’  growth,  they  should  be  thinned ; of  those  re- 
moved, let  a requisite  number  be  planted  out,  from  a foot  to  fifteen  inches 
asunder,  to  remain  for  cabbaging.  Such  as  continue  in  the  seed-beds  may 
be  either  gathered  thinningly,  in  progressive  stages,  till  the  final  reserve 
advance  in  close-heading ; or,  as  they  increase  in  size,  be  planted  out  at  the 
square  distance  mentioned  above,  especially  those  designed  to  stand  till  of 
stocky  growth.  In  dry  weather,  water  well  at  transplanting ; also  weed 
and  hoe  the  beds  thinned,  and  water  them,  if  necessary.  In  the  first  head- 
ing-crop of  Cos  lettuces,  when  about  three  parts  grown,  and  beginning  to 
close  the  inner  leaves,  a number  may  be  forwarded  in  cabbaging,  by  tying 
the  leaves  together,  moderately  close,  with  strings  of  bass ; the  remainder 
will  head  and  whiten  in  due  time,  without  this  assistance. 

Crop  raised  on  heat. — “For  an  accelerated  crop,  some  may  be  sowrn  in  the 
beginning  or  middle  of  February,  on  a gentle  hot-bed.  When  the  plants  are 
pne  or  two  inches  high,  in  March  or  April,  prick  a portion  either  into  a 


MELON. 


63 


warm  border,  if  a mild  season,  and  let  them  be  shielded  with  mats  during 
nights  and  bad  weather,  or  into  a frame  or  slender  hot-bed,  to  bring  them 
more  forward.  According  to  their  progress  in  April  or  May,  transplant 
them  into  the  open  garden,  from  six  to  twelve  inches  asunder,  to  remain  for 
heading.77 

To  save  seed. — u Leave  or  transplant  either  some  of  the  early  winter- 
standing plants,  in  March  or  April,  or  of  the  forwardest  spring-sown  crops, 
in  May,  or  the  beginning  of  June,  fifteen  inches  asunder.  They  will  produce 
ripe  seed  in  August  or  September.77 — Abercrombie. 

Use. — The  use  of  lettuce,  as  a cooling  and  agreeable  salad,  is  well  known; 
it  is  also  a useful  ingredient  in  soups.  It  has  medical  properties,  similar  to 
those  of  opium.  The  refuse  leaves  are  said  to  be  good  food  for  geese,  ducks, 
and  swine 


MELON. 


Cucumis  melo 1 and  Cucurbita  citrillus. — Melon , Fr. — Melons, 

Ger. 


There  are  but  two  species,  the  melon  with  a rough  or  embroidered  coat, 
called  musk-melon,  (cucumis  melo.)  and  the  melon  with  a smooth  skin, 
called  water-melon,  (cucurbita  citrullus.)  Of  each  of  the  species  there  are 
many  varieties.  Mr.  RusselPs  Catalogue  contains  the  following : — 


CUCUMIS  MF.LO. 

Green  citron,  (finest  variety,) 
Murray’s  pine  apple, 
Persian, 

Nutmeg, 

Minorca, 


Large  cantaleupe, 
Pomegranate. 

CUCURBITA  CITRULLUS. 

Carolina  water, 

Long  Island  do. 
Apple-seeded  do.  (early.) 


Seed. — Those  who  wish  to  procure  melons  in  perfection,  must  be  careful, 
in  the  first  place,  to  procure  good  seed ; secondly,  to  plant  them  remote  from 
an  inferior  sort,  as  well  as  from  cucumbers,  squashes,  gourds,  and  pumpkins  ; 
as  degeneracy  will  infallibly  be  the  consequence  of  inattention  to  these  direc- 
tions. Abercrombie  says,  “ Seed  under  the  age  of  two  years  is  apt  to  run 
too  much  to  vine,  and  show  only  male  flowers  ; but  new  seed  may  be  mel- 
lowed by  being  carried  in  the  pocket  a fortnight  or  more,  till  the  heat  of  the 
body  has  dried  and  hardened  it.  Seed  twenty  years  old  has  been  known  to 
grow,  and  make  fruitful  plants ; but  seed  which  has  been  kept  three  or  four 
years  is  quite  old  enough,  and  less  likely  to  fail  than  older.77 

Soil. — Abercrombie  says,  11  The  melon  will  succeed  in  any  unexhausted 


64 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


loam,  rich  in  vegetable  rudiments,  with  a mixture  of  sand,  hut  not  too  light. 
The  following  is  a good  compost  ; two  thirds  of  top-spit  earth  from  a sheep- 
common,  adding  sharp  sand,  if  the  earth  contains  little  or  none,  till  half  is 
sand ; one  sixth  of  vegetable  mould,  and  one  sixth  of  well  consumed  horse- 
dung.  Or,  if  the  earth  is  not  obtained  from  a sheep-pasture,  rotted  sheep- 
dung  may  be  substituted  for  the  last.  The  ingredients  should  have  been  pul- 
verized and  incorporated  by  long  previous  exposure  and  turning  over.77  Dr. 
Deane  observed  that  “ a good  manure  to  be  put  under  melons  is  an  old  com 
post  of  good  loam,  with  the  dung  of  neat  cattle  or  swine.’7 

Sowing  melons  in  the  open  ground. — Mr.  Armstrong  says,  u To  succeed  in 
raising  them  for  market,  the  Honfleur  method,  as  described  by  M.  Calvel, 
may  be  employed.  Select  a spot  well  defended  against  the  north  wind,  and 
open  to  the  sun  throughout  the  day.  If  such  is  not  to  be  found  in  your  gar- 
den, create  a temporary  and  artificial  shelter,  producing  the  same  effect.  At 
the  end  of  March,  form  holes  two  feet  in  diameter,  and  distant  from  each 
other  seven  feet  and  a half ; fill  these  with  horse-dung  and  litter,  or  a mix- 
ture of  mould,  dung  and  sand.  At  the  end  of  twenty  days,  cover  the  holes, 
which  have  been  thus  filled,  with  hand-glasses.  When  the  heat  rises  to  36 
of  Reaumur,  (113  Fahr.,)  sow  the  seeds  four  inches  apart;  and  when  the 
plants  have  acquired  two  or  three  leaves,  pinch  off  the  end  of  the  branch  or 
runner.  This  will  produce  lateral  branches,  which  must  again  be  pinched 
off,  as  soon  as  they  respectively  attain  to  the  length  of  ten  inches.  When 
the  plant  has  outgrown  the  glass,  the  latter  becomes  useless,  and  maybe  re- 
moved ; but,  should  the  weather  be  wet  or  chilly,  substitute  coverings  of 
clean  straw  for  that  of  the  glasses,  until  the  young  plant  becomes  strong 
enough  to  bear  the  open  air.  Two  or  three  melons  only  are  left  on  each 
vine,  and  under  each  of  these  is  placed  a slate,  without  which  the  upper  and 
under  side  will  not  ripen  together.  Two  months  are  required  to  mature 
them.  The  people  of  Honfleur  attribute  their  success  in  melon-raising  to  the 
sea-vapor  which  surrounds  them,  and  to  the  saline  particles  contained  in  it, 
an  advantage  to  be  anywhere  commanded,  by  dissolving  a little  salt  in  the 
water  employed  to  moisten  them.77  Whether  a bed  of  slate  would  prove  too 
warm  for  the  melon  in  our  climate,  we  cannot  say.  Perhaps  shingles  or 
boards  might  be  preferable,  as  they  would  not  be  rendered  so  hot  by  the 
noon-day  sun,  nor  so  cold  by  the  night  air.  We  have  never  known  salt,  ei- 
ther in  substance  or  solution,  used  as  a manure  for  melons,  but  think  it  would 
be  well  to  try  its  effects. 

The  following  are  M‘Mahon7s  directions  for  raising  melons  in  the  open 
ground.  Some  time  in  May,  “ prepare  a place  of  rich,  sandy  ground,  well 
exposed  to  the  sun  ; manure  it,  and  give  it  a good  digging ; then  mark  it  out 
into  squares  of  six  feet  every  way  ; at  the  angle  of  every  square  dig  a hole 
twelve  inches  deep,  and  eighteen  over,  into  which  put  seven  or  eight  inches 
deep  of  old  hot-bed  dung,  or  very  rotten  manure ; throw  thereon  about  four 


MELOtf. 


65 


inches  of  earth,  and  mix  the  dung  and  earth  well  with  the  spade ; after 
which  draw  the  remainder  of  the  earth  over  the  mixture,  so  as  to  form  a 
round  hill  about  a foot  broad  at  top.  Some  people  use  hot  stable  dung  under 
an  idea  that  its  heat  would  promote  the  vegetation  of  the  seed : this  is  a mis- 
taken notion,  as,  in  a few  hours,  it  loses  all  it  had,  for  want  of  a sufficient 
quantity  being  together  to  promote  fermentation,  and  becomes  a dryish  wisp, 
unfit,  at  least  for  the  present,  to  afford  either  heat  or  nourishment  to  the 
plants. 

“ When  your  hills  are  all  prepared  as  above,  plant  in  each,  towards  the 
• center,  eight  or  nine  grains  of  good  melon-seed,  distant  two  inches  from  one 

another,  and  cover  them  about  half  an  inch  deep.77 

After-culture. — u When  the  plants  are  up,  and  in  a state  of  forwardness, 
producing  their  rough  leaves,  they  must  be  thinned  to  two  or  three  in  each 
hill : the  extra  number  in  some  may  serve  to  fill  up  deficiencies  in  others  : 
draw  earth  from  time  to  time  round  the  hills,  and  as  high  about  the  plants  as 
the  seed-leaves  ; when  fit  stop  them.  This  operation  should  be  performed 
when  the  plants  have  two  rough  leaves,  and  when  the  second  is  about  an 
inch  broad,  having  the  first  runner-bud  rising  at  its  base  ; the  sooner  this  is 
detached,  the  sooner  the  plants  acquire  strength,  and  put  out  fruitful  runners. 

“ It  is  to  be  done  in  the  following  manner: — 

u You  will  see  arising  in  the  center  of  the  plant,  at  the  bottom  of  the  second 
rough  leaf,  the  end  of  the  first  runner,  like  a small  bud ; which  bud  or  run- 
ner, being  the  advancing  top  of  the  plant,  is  now  to  be  taken  off  close,  and 
may  be  done  either  with  the  point  of  a penknife  or  small  scissors,  or  pinched 
off  carefully  with  the  finger  and  thumb ; but,  whichever  way  you  take  it  off, 
be  careful  not  to  go  so  close  as  to  wound  the  joint  from  whence  it  proceeds.77 

Armstrong  says,  11  If  the  branches  be  vigorous  and  long,  stretch  them  care- 
fully over  a level  surface,  and  bury  every  fourth  or  fifth  joint.  This  is  best 
done  by  means  of  a wooden  crotchet.  The  objects  of  pinching,  or  shortening 
the  stem,  are  thus  completely  fulfilled,  without  any  of  the  risk  which  attends 
that  operation,  and  with  advantages  peculiar  to  this  method  ; as,  wherever 
the  plant  is  buried,  new  roots  are  formed  for  the  better  nutrition  of  the  stem 
and  the  fruit.77 

Setting. — u As  the  fruit-bearers  come  into  blossom,  you  may  assist  the  set- 
ting of  the  fruit,  by  impregnating  some  of  the  female  blossoms  with  the  male 
flowers,  as  directed  for  the  cucumber.  The  melon,  however,  will  also  set 
naturally,  and  produce  fertile  seeds,  if  the  time  of  fructification  fall  at  a sea- 
son when  the  glasses  can  be  left  almost  constantly  open.77 — Aber.  Nicol  says 
he  has  u proved,  experimentally,  that  melons  not  impregnated  will  not  sw'ell 
off  so  fair  and  handsome  as  impregnated  ones,  and  therefore  considers  it  more 
necessary  to  attend  to  this  operation  in  melons  than  in  cucumbers.77 — Loudon. 

Care  of  the  fruit. — As  the  fruit  increases  to  the  size  of  a walnut,  place  a 
flat  tile  or  slate  under  each,  to  protect  it  from  the  damp  of  the  earth ; the 


66 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


slab,  thus  interposed,  will  also  assist  the  fruit  to  ripen,  by  reflecting  the  rays 
of  the  sun — Aber.  Nicol  advises  placing  the  fruit  on  bits  of  slate  or  glass 
some  time  before  it  begins  to  ripen  ; but  by  no  means  slate  or  moss  the  whole 
surface  of  the  bed. 

Forcing  melons. — The  u Honjleur  method of  forwarding  the  produc- 
tion of  melons,  as  stated  by  Mr.  Armstrong,  has  been  given,  p.  64.  The 
same  writer  continues,  u If  we  want  melons  at  a period  earlier  than  this 
method  will  give  them,  we  must  employ  a higher  degree  and  a longer  con- 
tinuance of  artificial  heat ; in  a word,  we  must  resort  to  hot-beds , and  in  these 
the  point  most  important  and  difficult  of  attainment  at  the  same  time  is,  to 
secure  a certain  degree  of  heat,  and  no  more,  throughout  the  whole  process. 
To  lessen  the  difficulty  in  this  case,  gardeners,  who  understand  their  trade, 
make  choice  of  those  varieties  which  have  the  thinnest  skins  and  the  least 
bulk,  as  experience  proves  that,  other  things  being  equal,  they  require  less 
beat  than  those  of  thicker  rinds  and  greater  size,  and  are  of  course  less  sub- 
ject to  some  of  the  accidents  to  which  this  species  of  culture  is  exposed.  In 
choosing  the  seeds,  those  of  the  last  year  are  only  to  be  used,  because  they 
are  of  quicker  vegetation  than  old  ones,  and,  accordingly,  best  fulfill  the  in- 
tention of  the  hot-bed,  which  is,  to  give  early  fruit.  Another  practice  con- 
ducive to  the  safety  of  the  plants,  is,  to  sow  the  seeds  in  small  pots,  and  then 
to  plunge  them  into  a hot-bed.  If  the  heat  be  deficient,  they  are,  in  this 
case,  made  no  worse  than  they  would  have  been,  if  sown  directly  in  the  bed ; 
and  if  it  be  excessive,  it  is  only  necessary  to  raise  the  pots,  without  in  the 
smallest  degree  disturbing  the  plant.  These  things  being  premised,  it  but 
remains  to  show  what  ought  to  be  the  subsequent  management  after  the  seed 
has  been  sown,  and  the  pots  placed  under  the  frames.  One  of  the  most  im- 
portant points  now  to  be  observed,  is  sufficiently  to  ventilate  the  bed,  as  well 
before  as  after  the  plants  show  themselves.  This  should  be  done  at  mid-day 
and  in  sunshine,  and  as  often  as  a necessity  for  it  shall  be  indicated  by  an 
accumulation  of  steam  under  the  glasses.  At  night,  these  (the  glasses) 
should  be  carefully  covered  with  matting.  These  two  preliminaries  (venti- 
lation in  the  day,  and  covering  at  night)  being  carefully  observed,  your  plants 
will  soon  show  themselves  in  a vigorous  and  healthy  state,  and  may  be  kept 
in  that  condition  by  a continuation  of  the  same  means,  and  by  moderately 
moistening  the  earth  when  it  shall  have  become  too  dry.  The  water  em- 
ployed should  be  of  the  same  temperature  of  the  air  under  the  frames  ; and, 
to  secure  this,  it  is  well  to  keep  a supply  of  it  in  a pot,  placed  in  a corner  of 
the  hot-bed.  In  about  a month,  the  plants  thus  raised,  will  be  fit  for  trans- 
ferring to  a second  and  larger  hot-bed,  constructed  like  the  preceding,  with 
the  exception,  that  the  mass  of  dung  must  now  be  greater,  and  that,  after 
earthing,  the  bed  should  not  be  less  than  three  and  a half  or  four  feet  in  depth. 
The  plants,  with  the  earth  in  which  they  grow,  are  now  to  be  taken  from 
the  pots — an  operation  in  which  practice  only  will  make  us  expert,  and 


MELOtf. 


67 


which  consists  in  placing  the  neck  of  the  plant  between  the  first  and  second 
finger  of  the  left  hand,  reversing  the  pot,  and  gently  striking  its  sides  till  the 
earth  be  disengaged.  The  discharged  mass  is  then  placed  in  a hole,  previ- 
ously prepared  in  the  square,  where  it  is  intended  the  plant  shall  ripen  and 
produce.” 

Cutting  the  fruit. — Nicol  observes,  that  u Melons,  if  allowed  to  remain  on 
the  plant  till  they  be  of  a deep  yellow  color,  lose  much  of  their  flavor. 
They  should,  therefore,  be  cut  as  soon  as  they  begin  to  change  to  a greenish- 
yellow,  or,  rather,  as  soon  as  they  begin  to  smell  ripe.  They  may  lie  in  a 
frame  for  a day  or  two,  if  not  immediately  wanted,  where  they  will  acquire 
sufficient  color.  But  if  they  are  let  remain  many  days  in  the  frame,  they 
will  become  as  insipid  as  if  they  had  been  left  too  long  on  the  plant.” 

Saving  seed. — The  ordinary  mode  is  to  request  the  seeds  of  particularly  fine 
fruits  of  approved  sorts  to  be  returned  from  table.  The  best  way,  however, 
is  to  pick  some  best  ripe  fruit,  take  out  the  seed,  clean  it  from  the  pulp,  and 
let  it  be  well  dried  and  hardened ; and  then  put  it  up  in  papers. — fiber  crom- 
bie.  Nicol  says,  wash  it  very  clean,  skimming  off  the  light  seeds,  as  those 
only  which  sink  in  water  will  grow.  Great  care  must  be  taken  that  the 
sorts  from  which  seeds  are  saved  are  genuine  and  distinct.  When  different 
sorts  are  planted  in  the  same  bed,  this  cannot  be  the  case. 

Second  crop  from  the  same  plants. — u When  the  fruit  of  the  first  crop  is  off, 
a second  crop  may  be  obtained  from  the  same  stools,  which  often  proves 
more  productive  than  the  first.  If  the  first  crop  is  taken  before  the  middle 
of  June,  the  second  will  come  at  a very  good  time.  For  this  purpose,  as 
soon  as  the  fruit  is  cut,  prune  the  plant.  Shorten  the  vigorous,  healthy  run- 
ners, at  a promising  joint,  to  force  out  new  laterals,  cutting  about  two  inches 
above  the  joint.  At  the  same  time.,  take  off  all  decayed  or  sickly  vines,  and  all 
dead  leaves.  Stir  the  surface  of  the  mould,  and  renew  it  partially  by  three 
inches  depth  of  fresh  compost.  Water  the  plants  copiously,  shutting  down 
the  glasses  for  the  night.  Shade  in  the  middle  of  hot  days;  and  give  but 
little  air,  until  the  plant  has  made  new  radicles  and  shoots.  Afterwards  re- 
peat the  course  of  culture  above  described,  from  the  stage  when  the  first  run- 
ners are  sent  out  till  fruit  is  cut.” — Loudon. 

Insects  and  diseases. — To  prevent  melon-plants  from  being  infested  with 
insects,  or  injured  by  diseases  of  any  kind,  no  better  method  can  be  adopted 
than  to  keep  the  plants  constantly  in  a healthy,  vigorous,  growing  state  ; for 
this  purpose,  M‘Phail  observes,  u They  must  be  constantly  attended  to,  giv- 
ing them  plenty  of  heat  and  water.  In  warm  weather,  in  the  spring  and  in 
summer,  they  should  be  watered  occasionally  all  over  their  fruit  and  leaves, 
till  the  earth  in  which  they  grow  be  thoroughly  moistened.”  In  this  coun- 
try, melons  and  cucumbers  are  much  infested  by  a small  yellow  bug,  and 
perhaps  the  best  method  of  securing  them  is  covering  the  plants  with  a frame, 


08 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


on  which  millinet  is  stretched  and  fastened,  as  directed  under  the  article  Cu- 
cumber. 

Use. — The  use  of  melons,  as  a palatable  and  wholesome  article  of  diet,  is 
too  well  known  to  need  any  remarks.  Dr.  Mease,  of  Philadelphia,  observes, 
that  “ The  juice  of  the  sweeter  kind  of  water-melon  yields,  on  inspissation, 
a bright-colored  syrup,  which  would  answer  every  purpose  required  of  any 
syrup.  Mr.  Henry  Drinker,  of  Philadelphia,  procured  half  a pound  of  this 
syrup,  from  fourteen  pounds  of  melon  juice,  a part  of  which  I tasted,  and 
found  very  pleasant.”  To  make  the  most  of  unripe  melons,  Loudon’s  Mag- 
azine directs  to  “ boil  them,  and  season  them  with  spices  and  salt,  or  bake 
them  like  a pumpkin-pie.”  The  rind  of  the  water-melon  is  also  used  for 
pickling,  &c. 


MINT. 

Mentha  Viridis. — Mtnihe , Fr. — Munze , Ger. 

This  is  a genus  of  plants  comprising  twenty-four  species.  Those  culti- 
vated in  gardens  are  peppermint,  (M.  piperita ;)  spearmint,  (M.  viridis  j) 
pennyroyal-mint,  ( M . pulegium.) 

Culture. — All  uthe  species  are  raised  by  the  same  methods,  viz.,  by  part- 
ing the  roots,  by  offset  young  plants,  and  by  cuttings  of  the  stalks.  Spear- 
mint and  peppermint  like  a moist  soil ; penny-royal,  a strong  loam.  The 
plants  set  in  spring  or  summer  will  come  into  use  the  same  year.  They 
may  be  placed  about  eight  inches  apart,  on  beds  about  four  feet  wide,  allow- 
ing a path  two  feet  broad.  New  beds  should  be  made  every  three  years. 

Gathering  the  crop , and  use. — “ Mint  should  be  cut  for  drying,”  says  Phil- 
ips, “just  when  it  is  in  flower,  and  on  a fine  day ; for  if  cut  in  damp  weather, 
the  leaves  will  turn  black.  It  should  be  tied  in  small  bunches,  and  dried  in 
a shady  place,  out  of  the  wind ; but,  to  retain  its  natural  virtues  more  effect- 
ually, it  has  been  found  better  to  place  the  mint  in  a screen,  and  to  dry  it 
quickly  before  a fire,  so  that  it  may  be  powdered  and  immediately  put  into 
glass  bottles,  and  kept  well  stopped.  Parsley,  thyme,  sage,  and  other  herbs, 
retain  their  full  fragrance  when  thus  prepared,  and  are  by  this  mode  secured 
from  dust,  and  always  ready  to  the  hand  of  the  cook. 

“ A conserve  made  of  mint  is  grateful,  and  the  distilled  waters,  both  sim- 
ple and  spirituous,  are  much  esteemed.  The  juice  of  spearmint,  drank  in 
vinegar,  often  stops  the  hiccup.  Lewis  observes,  what  has  before  been  ob- 
served by  Pliny,  that  mint  prevents  the  coagulation  of  milk,  and  hence  it  is 
recommended  in  milk  diets.” 


MUSHROOM, 


69 


MUSHROOM. 

Agaricus  Campestris. — Champignon  cultive , Fr. — Pitz , Ger. 

This  is  a genus  of  plants  comprising  a great  many  species,  of  which,  ac- 
cording to  some  authors,  three  hundred  are  natives  of  Great  Britain.  The 
kind  cultivated  in  gardens  is  the  Jlgaricus  campestris , which  is  thus  described 
by  M‘Mahon  : — “ The  gills  of  this  are  loose,  of  a pinky  red,  changing  to  liver 
color,  in  contact,  but  not  united  with  the  stem ; very  thick  set,  some  forked 
next  the  stem,  some  next  the  edge  of  the  cap,  some  at  both  ends,  and  gene- 
rally, in  that  case,  excluding  the  intermediate  smaller  gills.  Cap , white, 
changing  to  brown  when  old,  and  becoming  scurfy,  fleshy,  and  regularly  con- 
vex, but  with  age  flat,  and  liquefying  in  decay ; flesh  white  ; diameter  com- 
monly from  one  inch  to  three,  or  sometimes  four  or  more.  Stem  solid,  one 
to  three  inches  high,  and  about  half  an  inch  in  diameter.5* 

Loudon  says,  “The  mushroom  is  a well  known  native  vegetable,  spring- 
ing up  in  open  pastures  in  August  and  September.  It  is  most  readily  distin- 
guished, when  of  middle  size,  by  its  fine  pink  or  flesh-colored  gills,  and 
pleasant  smell ; in  a more  advanced  stage,  the  gills  become  of  a chocolate 
color,  and  it  is  then  more  apt  to  be  confounded  with  other  kinds  of  dubious 
quality ; but  that  species  which  most  nearly  resembles  it,  is  slimy  to  the 
touch,  and  destitute  of  the  fine  odor,  having  rather  a disagreeable  smell : fur- 
ther, the  noxious  kind  grows  in  woods,  or  on  the  margins  of  woods,  while  the 
true  mushroom  springs  up  chiefly  in  open  pastures,  and  should  be  gathered 
only  in  such  places.55 

Mr.  Armstrong  gives  the  following  directions  for  cultivating  the  garden 
mushroom  : — ■“  Prepare  a bed,  early  in  October,  either  in  a corner  of  the  hot- 
house, if  you  have  one,  or  a dry  and  warm  cellar.  The  width  of  the  bed  at 
bottom  should  not  be  less  than  four  feet,  and  its  length  in  proportion  to  the 
spawn  provided.  Its  sides  should  rise  perpendicularly  one  foot,  and  should 
afterwards  decrease  to  the  center,  forming  four  sloping  surfaces.  We  need 
hardly  say  that  the  material  of  the  bed  at  this  stage  of  the  business  must  be 
horse-dung,  well  forked,  and  pressed  together  to  prevent  its  settling  unequal- 
ly. It  should  then  be  covered  with  long  straw,  as  wrell  to  exclude  frost  as 
to  keep  in  the  volatile  parts  of  the  mass,  which  would  otherwise  escape 
After  ten  days,  the  temperature  of  the  bed  will  be  sufficiently  moderated. 
wrhen  the  straw  is  to  be  removed,  and  a covering  of  good  mould  to  the  depth 
of  an  inch,  laid  over  the  dung.  On  this  the  seed  or  spawn  of  the  mushroom 
[which  are  threads  or  fibers  of  a white  color,  found  in  old  pasture  grounds, 
in  masses  of  rotten  horse-dung,  sometimes  under  stable-floors,  and  frequently 
in  the  remains  of  old  hot-beds]  is  to  be  placed  in  rows,  six  inches  apart,  oc- 
cupying all  the  sloping  parts  of  the  bed,  which  is  again  to  be  covered  with  a 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


70 

second  inch  of  fresh  mould  and  a coat  of  straw.  If  your  bed  has  been  well 
constructed,  your  mushrooms  will  be  fit  for  use  at  the  end  of  five  or  six  weeks, 
and  will  continue  to  be  productive  for  several  months.  Should  you,  how- 
ever, in  the  course  of  the  winter,  find  its  productiveness  diminished,  take  off 
nearly  all  the  original  covering,  and  replace  it  with  eight  or  ten  inches  of 
fresh  dung  and  a coat  of  clean  straw.  This,  by  creating  a new  heat,  will  re- 
vive the  action  of  the  spawn,  and  give  a long  succession  of  mushrooms.7’ — 
Mem.  of  N.  Y.  Board  of  Agr.  vol.  ii,  p.  125. 

Use. — The  garden  mushroom  is  eaten  fresh,  either  stewed  or  boiled ; and 
preserved  as  a pickle,  or  in  powder,  or  dried  whole.  The  sauce  commonly 
called  ketchup  (supposed,  by  Martyn,  from  the  Japanese  kit-jap)  is  or  ought 
to  be  made  from  its  juice  with  salt  and  spices.  Wild  mushrooms  from  old 
pastures  are  generally  considered  as  more  delicate  in  flavor,  and  more  tender 
in  flesh,  than  those  raised  in  artificial  beds.  But  the  young  or  butter  mush- 
rooms, of  the  cultivated  sort,  are  firmer,  and  better  for  pickling ; and  in 
using  cultivated  mushrooms,  there  is  evidently  much  less  risk  of  deleterious 
kinds  being  employed.” — Neill  and  Martyn. 

“ Antidote  to  poisonous  sorts. — All  fungi  should  be  used  with  great  caution, 
for  even  the  champignon  and  edible  garden-mushrooms  possess  deleterious 
qualities  when  grown  in  certain  places.  All  the  edible  species  should  be 
thoroughly  masticated,  before  taken  into  the  stomach,  as  this  greatly  lessens 
the  effects  of  poisons.  When  accidents  of  this  sort  happen,  vomiting  should 
be  immediately  excited,  and  then  the  vegetable  acids  should  be  given,  either 
vinegar,  lemon-juice,  or  that  of  apples ; after  which,  give  ether  and  anti- 
spasmodic  remedies,  to  stop  the  excessive  bilious  vomiting.  Infusions  of 
gall-nut,  oak-bark,  and  Peruvian  bark  are  recommended  as  capable  of  neu- 
tralizing the  poisonous  principle  of  mushrooms.  It  is,  however,  the  safest 
way  not  to  eat  any  of  the  good , but  less  common  sorts,  until  they  have  been 
soaked  in  vinegar.  Spirits  of  wine  and  vinegar  extract  some  part  of  their 
poison  ; and  tannin  matter  decomposes  the  greatest  part  of  it.” — Botanist’s 
Companion , vol.  ii,  p.  145. 


MUSTARD. 

Sinapis. — Moutarde , Fr. — Senf  Ger. 

Of  this  plant  there  are  two  species  in  cultivation,  the  blcLck  and  the  white ; 
annuals,  and  natives  of  Great  Britain. 

The  following  are  Loudon’s  directions  for  the  culture  of  the  white  mus- 
tard, S.  alba.  For  spring  and  summer  consumption,  sow  once  a week  or 
fortnight,  in  dry,  warm  situations,  in  February  and  March;  and,  afterwards, 


MUSTARD. 


71 


in  any  other  compartment.  “ In  summer,  sow  in  shady  borders,  if  it  be  hot, 
sunny  weather;  or,  have  the  bed  shaded.  Generally,  sow  in  shallow,  flat 
drills,  from  three  to  six  inches  apart ; scatter  the  seed  thick  and  regular,  and 
cover  in  thinly  with  the  earth,  about  a quarter  of  an  inch.  To  furnish  gath- 
erings in  winter  or  early  in  spring,  sow  in  frames  or  under  hand-glasses;  and 
when  the  weather  is  frosty,  or  very  cold,  in  hot-beds  and  stoves.7’ 

Use. — “ This  species,”  according  to  Loudon,  u is  cultivated  chiefly  as  a 
small  salad,  and  is  used  like  cresses,  while  in  the  seed : when  these  are 
newly  expanded,  they  are  mild  and  tender ; but  when  the  plants  have  ad- 
vanced into  the  rough  leaves,  they  eat  rank  and  disagreeable.”  w In  Spain, 
and  throughout  the  south  of  Europe,  the  seed  of  the  white  species  is  pre- 
ferred, for  the  fabrication  of  mustard,  because  giving  a whiter  and  milder 
flour  than  the  seed  of  the  black.” — Armstrong. 

The  seed  of  this  plant  is  also  celebrated  for  its  medical  virtues,  being  at 
once  a tonic  and  an  aperient ; cleansing  the  stomach  and  bowels,  and 
bracing  the  system  at  the  same  time. — See  N.  E.  Farmer , vol.  vi,  p.  188. 

Black  Mustard. — S.  nigra — is  a larger  plant  than  the  white,  with  much 
darker  leaves,  and  their  divisions  blunter. 

Use. — “Black  mustard  is  chiefly  cultivated  in  fields  for  the  mill,  and  for 
medicinal  purposes.  It  is  sometimes,  however,  sown  in  gardens,  and  the 
tender  leaves  used  as  greens,  early  in  the  spring.  The  seed  leaves,  in  com- 
mon with  those  of  the  cress,  radish,  rape,  &c  , are  sometimes  used  as  a salad 
ingredient ; but  the  grand  purpose  for  which  the  plant  is  cultivated,  is  for 
seeds,  which,  ground,  produce  the  well  known  condiment.  If  the  seeds,  Dr. 
Cullen  observes,  be  taken  fresh  from  the  plant,  and  ground,  the  powder  has 
little  pungency,  but  is  very  bitter ; by  steeping  in  vinegar,  however,  the 
essential  oil  is  evolved,  and  the  powder  becomes  extremely  pungent.  In 
moistening  mustard-powder  for  the  table,  it  may  be  remarked,  that  it  makes 
the  best  appearance  when  rich  milk  is  used ; but  the  mixture,  in  this  case, 
does  not  keep  good  for  more  than  two  days.  The  seeds  of  both  the  black 
and  white  mustard  are  often  used,  in  an  entire  state,  medicinally.” 

Culture  for  the  mill. — “ To  raise  seed  for  flour  of  mustard,  and  other  offi- 
cinal occasions,  sow,  either  in  March  or  April,  in  any  open  compartment ; or 
make  large  sowings  in  fields,  where  designed  for  public  supply.  Sow  mo- 
derately thick,  either  in  drills,  from  six  to  twelve  inches  asunder,  or  broad- 
cast, and  rake  or  harrow  in  the  seed.  When  the  plants  are  two  or  three 
inches  in  the  growth,  hoe  and  thin  them  moderately  where  too  thick,  and 
clear  them  from  weeds.  They  will  soon  run  up  in  stalks,  and,  in  July  or 
August,  return  a crop  of  seed  ripe  for  gathering.” — Abercrombie. 


? 2 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER 


ONION. 


Allium  cepa. — Oignon , Fr. — Zwbiel , Ger. 


The  common  bulbous  onion  is  a biennial  plant,  supposed  to  be  a native  of 
Asia.  There  are  many  varieties  of  this  plant.  Those  mentioned  in  Mr. 
Russell’s  Catalogue  are  the  following : — 


The  Strasburg  is  most  generally  adopted  for  principal  crops.  The  silvei 
skinned  is  reckoned  among  the  best  for  pickling.  “ The  top  or  tree  onion 
has  the  remarkable  property  of  producing  the  onions  at  the  top  of  the  stalk, 
and  is  valuable  for  domestic  use,  particularly  for  pickling,  in  which  they  are 
excellent,  and  superior  in  flavor  to  the  common  kinds.  It  is  also  used  for 
any  other  purpose  that  onions  usually  are.  It  is  perennial,  and  propagated 
by  planting  the  bulbs  in  spring  or  autumn,  either  the  roots,  bulbs,  or  those 
on  the  top  of  the  stalks.” — Russell’s  Catalogue. 

Soil  and  culture. — The  onion,  u to  attain  a good  size,  requires  rich,  mellow 
ground,  on  a dry  sub-soil.  If  the  soil  be  poor  or  exhausted,  recruit  it  with  a 
compost  of  fresh  loam  and  well-consumed  dung,  avoiding  to  use  stable-dung 
in  a rank,  unreduced  state.  Turn  in  the  manure  to  a moderate  depth  ; and, 
in  digging  the  ground,  let  it  be  broken  fine.  Grow  pickles  in  poor,  light 
ground,  to  keep  them  small.  The  market-gardeners  at  Hexham  sow  their 
onion-seed  on  the  same  ground  for  twenty  or  more  years  in  succession,  but 
annually  manure  the  soil.  After  digging  and  leveling  the  ground,  the  ma- 
nure, in  a very  rotten  state,  is  spread  upon  it,  the  onion-seed  sown  upon  the 
manure,  and  covered  with  earth  from  the  alleys,  and  the  crops  are  abundant, 
and  excellent  in  quality.” — Hort.  Trans,  i,  121. 

Deane’s  New  England  Farmer  says,  u A spot  of  ground  should  be  chosen 
for  them,  W’hich  is  moist  and  sandy ; because  they  require  much  heat  and  a 
considerable  degree  of  moisture.  A low  situation,  where  the  sand  has  been 
washed  down  from  a neighboring  hill,  is  very  proper  for  them.  And  if  it 
be  the  wash  of  a sandy  road,  so  much  the  better.  The  most  suitable  ma- 
nures are  old,  rotten  cow  and  horse  dung  mixed,  ashes,  but  especially  soot. 
A small  quantity  of  ashes  or  sand,  or  both,  should  be  spread  over  them  after 
sowing,  especially  if  the  soil  be  not  sandy.  And  it  is  not  amiss  to  roll  the 
ground  after  sowing  ; or  harden  the  surface  with  the  back  of  a shovel.” 

Mr.  Armstrong  says,  “ It  is  propagated  either  by  the  seed  or  by  the  bulbs. 
In  the  first  case,  you  sow  in  shallow  drills,  twelve  or  fourteen  inches  apart ; 


White  Portugal, 
Yellow, 

Genuine  Madeira, 


Top  or  tree  onion, 

Silver-skinned, 

Strasburgh, 


Large  red, 
Potato  onion. 


ONION. 


73 


cover  with  mould,  and,  when  the  plants  come  up,  thin  them,  so  that  they 
may  stand  three  or  four  inches  from  each  other.  The  sooner  this  is  done  in 
the  spring,  after  the  earth  has  acquired  a temperature  favorable  to  vegetation, 
the  better  will  be  your  crop.  It  only  remains  to  keep  the  earth  loose  and 
clean  about  the  roots,  and,  if  the  vegetation  be  too  vigorous,  to  break  down 
the  tops,  so  as  to  determine  the  juices  to  the  bulbs.  In  the  other  case  you 
but  employ  the  small  and  half-grown  onion  of  the  preceding  fall  instead  of 
seed.’7 

Mr.  Hubbard,  of  Concord,  Mass.,  in  an  article  published  in  the  N.  E. 
Farmer , vol.  iii,  p.  89,  says,  “ The  soil  ought  to  be  a deep , black  loam , that 
will  crumble  fine  when  the  plow  passes  through  it ; such  as  is  easily 
raked  smooth  and  pulverized.  A heavy  clammy  soil,  that  adheres  together 
when  both  wet  and  dry — a dry,  clayey,  or  a sandy  soil,  will  not  answer.  I 
knowr  of  no  vegetable  that  is  so  difficult  to  please  with  a soil,  as  the  onion  : 
though  they  will  grow  well,  yet  they  will  not  ripen,  but  hold  green  through- 
out the  fall,  and  many  of  them  will  be  what  are  generally  known  by  the 
name  of  scullions , with  the  neck  stiff  and  green ; whereas  those  on  suitable 
ground  are  ripe  and  dry  by  the  first  of  September.  Rotten  stable-manure, 
made  in  the  winter  preceding  the  spring  in  which  it  is  put  on  the  land,  is 
generally  made  use  of,  to  be  spread  on  the  ground,  and  plowed  in.  I have 
a piece  of  land  four  rods  square,  on  which  onions  have  been  raised,  I suppose, 
these  eighty  y ears ; and  since  I have  improved  it,  I have  yearly  spread  upon 
it  five  cart-loads  of  manure,  such  as  are  usually  drawn  by  one  pair  of  oxen  ; 
and  have  raised  from  four  to  seven  hundred  bunches  of  onions  upon  it,  at 
three  and  a half  pounds  to  the  bunch,  of  which  about  sixteen  make  a 
bushel.77 

Mr.  Hubbard  puts  the  seed  into  the  ground  as  soon  as  the  frost  is  out,  and 
it  is  sufficiently  dry  to  be  worked  ; frequently  the  latter  part  of  March,  but 
more  frequently  in  the  first  days  of  April.  He  has  always  planted  them  in 
hills,  which  is  the  general  practice  in  Concord.  “My  method  of  preparing 
the  ground  and  planting  the  seed  is,  first , carry  on  the  manure,  and  spread  it 
as  even  as  possible,  when  the  ground  is  to  be  plowed  deep ; then  let  the 
plat  be  divided  into  beds,  about  three  feet  nine  inches  wide ; to  do  which  the 
easier  way  is  to  stretch  a line  across,  lining  one  bed  at  a time  ; after  this, 
let  a man,  with  a shovel  or  a potato-hoe,  make  an  alley  through  the  whole 
piece,  to  separate  the  beds,  about  four  inches  deep,  and  sufficiently  wide  to 
admit  a person  to  walk  in  it.  Then  let  the  lumps  be  beat  fine,  leveling  the 
ground,  and  shaping  the  beds ; which,  after  being  raked  smooth,  must  be 
divided  into  squares  of  eight  or  nine  inches.  This  is  best  done  by  a line  ; or 
it  is  sufficiently  exact  to  draw  a heavy  rope  backwards  and  forwards.  Now 
let  the  seeds,  six  or  seven  in  a hill,  more  or  less,  be  dropped  into  the  corners 
of  the  squares,  and  covered  with  mould,  about  half  an  inch  deep,  pressed 
down  with  the  hand.77 


4 


74 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


A writer  for  the  N.  E.  Farmer , vol.  iii,  p.  249,  with  the  signature  J.  M1 
recommends  u a moist,  black  soil/’  as  best,  but  says,  “ a free,  deep  loam 
will  answer  very  well.’7  44  The  onion  is  not  by  nature  inclined  to  root  deep 
You  must  give  it  a hard  bottom  to  grow  on,  and  keep  your  manure  on  the 
surface  within  reach  of  the  roots ; then  they  will  grow  large,  flat,  and  hand- 
some.’7 Advises  to  sow  the  same  piece  for  several  successive  years.  44  I 
have  always  sowed  onions  in  drills , about  eighteen  inches  apart,  to  give  fair 
play  to  the  hoe.  Onions  must  be  sowed  as  early  as  possible  after  the  frost 
is  out  of  the  ground : in  this  climate,  if  the  seed  is  not  in  the  ground  before 
the  first  of  May,  there  is  but  little  chance  for  a crop.  It  must  be  covered 
slightly  and  stamped  well  over  with  the  hoe  to  close  it  well.  I would  re- 
commend, as  most  essential,  to  sow  the  seed  sparingly.  Even  the  best  gar- 
deners are  apt  to  put  in  too  much  seed.  The  consequence  is,  that  the  young 
plants  come  up  so  thick  that  they  run  up  spiry  and  weak ; and,  when  you 
come  to  thin  them,  you  find  great  difficulty  to  pull  up  so  many  without  in- 
juring those  that  you  leave  ; and  the  worst  injury  is  what  you  do  to  the 
roots,  wrhich  you  tear  and  loosen.  Therefore  have  seed  of  your  own  raising, 
or  that  you  know  is  fresh,  and  sow  sparingly.77 

In  the  N.  E.  Farmer , vol.  iii,  p.  265,  are  the  observations  of  I.  Tucker, 
Esq.  of  Salem,  Mass.,  who  says,  “ The  land  should  be  plowed  about  four 
inches  in  depth,  and  harrowed  so  as  to  make  it  very  fine  ; the  manure,  which 
should  always  be  a rich  compost,  should  be  plowed  in  and  thoroughly 
mixed ; the  land  should  then  be  rolled  with  a heavy  roller,  to  form  a close 
bottom  for  the  bulbs  to  form  upon,  and  at  the  same  time  not  so  hard  as  to 
prevent  the  small  roots  of  the  plant  from  penetrating.  The  best  onions  and 
the  largest  crops  are  produced  where  the  bulbs  grow  almost  entirely  on  the 
top  of  the  ground.  After  the  ground  has  been  rolled,  and  before  the  seeds 
are  sown,  the  beds  should  be  raked  with  a sharp  iron  rake,  to  prepare  a 
finely  pulverized  drill  for  reception  of  the  seed ; and,  after  the  seeds  are 
sown,  the  drill  should  be  pressed  with  a board  and  sufficient  weight  to  bring 
the  earth  into  close  contact  with  the  seed.  Care  should  be  taken  in  select- 
ing seed ; none  should  be  sown  but  such  as  will  be  sure  to  vegetate  ; and  it 
would  be  well  if  no  more  seed  were  to  be  sown  than  you  would  have  plants 
to  remain  and  grow  in  the  drill.  It  would  be  superfluous  to  add  that,  if  you 
would  have  a good  crop  of  onions,  you  must  not  permit  a crop  of  weeds  to 
grow  in  the  same  bed  5 they  will  not  grow  well  together.77 

Mr.  Adams  Knight  of  Newbury,  Mass.,  received  a premium  of  twenty 
dollars  for  having  raised,  in  1822,  the  greatest  quantity  of  onions,  being  six 
hundred  and  fifty-one  bushels  on  one  acre.  44  The  soil  is  a rich,  gravelly 
loam,  with  a gravel  bottom : in  1821  it  was  cultivated  with  onions  and  cab- 
bages, and  was  manured  with  about  five  cords  of  barn  manure,  and  produced 
a good  crop : after  the  crop  was  off  the  ground,  there  were  five  cords  of 
barn  manure  and  two  and  a half  of  leached  ashes  plowed  in : in  April, 


ONION. 


75 


1822,  it  was  once  plowed,  and  sowed  in  rows  14  inches  apart  which  took 
between  three  and  four  pounds  of  seed  : in  the  course  of  the  season,  it  was 
hoed  between  the  rows,  and  weeded  four  times  : in  September,  the  onions 
were  harvested,  and  there  were  six  hundred  and  fifty-one  bushels.  The 
entire  expense  of  cultivating  this  acre  of  onions,  including  twenty-one  dollars 
and  thirty-seven  cents,  the  cost  of  the  manure,  was  fifty-seven  dollars  and 
thirty-eight  cents.” 

The  work  entitled  Gleanings , <§*c.,  in  Husbandry,  directs  to  sow  onions,  if 
possible,  in  a dry  time,  and  to  tread  them  in,  in  light  ground. 

Loudon  says,  44  When  onions  are  to  be  drawn  young,  two  ounces  of  seed 
will  be  requisite  for  a bed  four  feet  by  twenty-four  ; but  when  to  remain  for 
bulbing,  one  ounce  will  suffice  for  a bed  five  feet  by  twenty-four  feet.” 

Deane  says,  44  The  ground  should  be  dug  or  plowed  in  autumn,  not  very 
deep ; and  then  made  very  fine  in  the  spring,  and  all  the  gross  roots  and 
roots  of  weeds  taken  out ; then  laid  in  beds  four  feet  wide.  Four  rows  of 
holes  are  made  in  a bed,  the  row's  ten  inches  apart,  and  the  holes  in  the 
rows  ten.  About  half  a dozen  seeds  are  put  in  a hole,  or  more  if  there  be 
any  danger  of  their  not  coming  up  well,  and  buried  an  inch  under  the  surface. 
They  will  grow  very  well  in  bunches.  Though  the  largest  onions  are  those 
which  growr  singly  some  inches  apart,  those  which  are  more  crowded  pro- 
duce larger  crops;  and  the  middle-sized  onions  are  better  for  eating  than  the 
largest.”  The  last  week  in  April  is  the  proper  time  for  sowing,  according 
to  this  author. 

The  course  of  culture  recommended  by  Abercrombie  for  the  summeiyand 
what  he  calls  winter-laid-by  crops  is  as  follows : — 44  Allot  an  open  compart- 
ment, and  lay  it  out  in  beds,  from  three  to  five  feet  in  width.  Sow  broad- 
cast, equally  over  the  rough  surface,  moderately  thick,  bed  and  bed  sepa- 
rately, and  rake  in  the  seed  lengthwise  each  bed,  in  a regular  manner. 
When  the  plants  are  three  or  four  inches  high,  in  May  and  June,  let  them 
be  timely  cleared  from  wreeds,  and  let  the  principal  crop  be  thinned,  either 
by  hand,  or  with  a small,  two-inch  hoe ; thinning  the  plants  to  intervals  of 
from  three  to  five  inches  in  the  main  crops  designed  for  full  bulbing,  or 
some  beds  may  remain  moderately  thick  for  drawing  young,  by  successive 
thinnings,  to  the  above  distance.  For  the  Spanish,  from  seed  obtained  im- 
mediately from  Spain,  the  final  distance  should  be  six  or  seven  inches.  Keep 
the  whole  very  clear  from  weeds,  in  their  young  and  advancing  state.  The 
plants  will  begin  bulbing  a little  in  June,  more  fully  in  July,  and  be  fully- 
grown  in  August  to  large  bulbs.  In  July  or  August,  when  the  leaves  begin 
to  dry  at  the  points  and  turn  yellow,  lay  the  stems  down  close  to  the  ground, 
bending  them  about  two  inches  up  the  neck,  which  promotes  the  ripening  of 
the  bulb,  particularly  in  wet  or  backward  seasons.  The  crop  of  full  bulbers 
will  be  ready  to  take  up  towards  the  middle  of  August.  When  the  necks 
shrink  and  the  leaves  decay,  pull  them  wholly  up  in  due  time.  Spread 


*0 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


them  on  a compartment  of  dry  ground,  in  the  full  sun,  to  dry  and  harden 
completely,  turning  them  every  two  or  three  days,  and  in  a week  or  fort- 
night they  will  be  ready  to  house.  Clear  off  the  grossest  part  of  the  leaves, 
stalks  and  fibers ; then  deposit  the  bulbs  in  some  close,  dry  apartment,  in 
which  sometimes  turn  them  over,  and  pick  out  any  that  decay;  and  they 
will  thus  keep  sound  and  good  all  winter  and  spring,  till  May  following.7* 

Culture  of  a winter -standing  crop  to  be  drawn  for  use  the  succeeding  spring. 
— u Allot  a soil  rather  more  light  and  sandy  for  the  summer  crop,  on  a sub- 
soil at  least  equally  dry.  The  compartment,  especially  for  any  of  the  bien- 
nial kinds,  should  lie  warm  and  sheltered.  The  beds  may  be  three  or  four 
feet  wide,  running  parallel  to  the  best  aspect.  The  medium  time  for  the 
principal  sowing  falls  about  the  7th  of  August,  and,  for  a secondary  crop, 
near  the  25th  Sow  the  bulbing  sorts  and  the  Welsh  perennial  separately ; 
distribute  the  seed  pretty  thickly.  If  the  soil  be  dry  and  light,  tread  down 
the  seed  evenly  along  the  surface  of  each  bed,  and  then  rake  it  in  neatly 
When  the  plants  are  come  up  one,  two,  or  three  inches,  carefully  hand- weed 
in  time,  before  any  rising  weeds  spread ; not  thinning  the  plants,  because 
they  should  remain  thick,  for  their  chance  in  winter,  and  to  be,  by  degrees, 
drawn  thinningly,  for  use  in  salads  and  otherwise ; but  reserve  a principal 
supply  to  remain  till  spring.  Observe,  the  Welsh  onion,  in  particular,  com- 
monly dies  down  to  the  ground  about  mid- winter;  but  the  root  part,  remain- 
ing wholly  sound,  sends  up  a new,  vigorous  stem  in  February  and  March. 
At  the  opening  of  spring,  let  the  whole  of  both  sorts  be  well  cleared  from 
weeds ; they  will  continue  fit  to  draw  young  during  all  the  spring  months, 
till  May;  then  let  some  of  the  bulbous  kinds  be  thinned,  to  remain  for  early 
bulbing  in  June  and  July;  but,  as  they  will  soon  after  shoot  up  in  stalk, 
they  are  chiefly  for  present  use,  not  being  eligible  as  keeping-onions.77 

To  preserve  onions  through  the  winter,  they  may  be  tied  together,  form- 
ing what  are  called  ropes  or  bunches  of  onions,  and  kept  in  a dry  and  cool 
cellar.  Moisture  rots,  and  warmth  causes  them  to  vegetate.  A consider- 
able degree  of  cold  will  not  injure  them,  for  they  resist  frost  in  consequence 
of  a spirituous  substance  of  which  they  are  in  part  composed.  Searing  their 
fibrous  roots  with  a hot  iron  will  prevent  them  from  sprouting. 

To  obtain  seed  from  onions,  they  should  be  planted  early  in  beds,  about 
nine  inches  apart.  The  largest  and  soundest  are  best.  They  should  be  kept 
free  from  w^eeds ; and,  when  the  heads  of  the  flowers  begin  to  appear,  each 
plant  must  have  a stake  about  four  feet  long,  and  its  stems  be  loosely  tied  to 
the  stake  by  a soft  string ; or  the  stems  may  be  supported  by  stakes,  six  or 
eight  feet  apart,  and  pack-thread  or  rope-yarn  fastened  from  one  to  the  other, 
a little  below  the  heads.  When  ripe,  the  heads  are  to  be  cut  (or  the  seeds 
will  shed)  and  spread  in  the  sun,  on  coarse  cloths,  to  dry — being,  however, 
taken  under  shelter  at  night  and  in  rain.  When  the  seed  is  beaten  out,  it  is 
to  be  dried  one  day  in  the  sun,  and  then  put  in  bags  to  preserve  for  sowing. 


ONION. 


77 


Dr.  Deane  and  Mr.  Nicholson,  author  of  the  Farmers  Assistant , condemn 
the  practice  of  beating  or  breaking  down  the  tops  of  onions  in  order  to  in- 
crease the  size  of  the  root.  Mr.  Nicholson  observed,  41  The  practice  is  un- 
doubtedly injurious,  as  we  have  seen  confirmed  by  experiment.5'1 

“ Culture  of  the  potato  onion . — This  variety,  erroneously  supposed  to  have 
been  brought  from  Egypt  by  the  British  army  about  1805,  was  grown  in 
Driver’s  nursery,  in  1796,  and  has  been  known  in  Devonshire  for  upwards 
of  twenty  years  It  is  thus  cultivated  at  Arundel  Castle  by  Maher: — 
Having  thoroughly  prepared  the  ground,  and  formed  it  into  beds  four  feet 
wTide,  k I draw  lines  the  whole  length,  three  to  each  bed,  and,  with  the  end 
of  the  rake-handle,  make  a mark  (not  a drill)  on  the  surface  ; on  this  mark 
I place  the  onions,  ten  inches  apart ; I then  cover  them  with  leaf-mould, 
rotten  dung,  or  any  other  light  compost,  just  so  that  the  crowns  appear  ex- 
posed. Nothing  more  is  necessary  to  be  done  until  they  shoot  up  their  tops  j 
then,  on  a dry  day,  they  are  earthed  up,  like  potatoes,  and  kept  free  from 
weeds,  until  they  are  taken  up.  In  the  west  of  England,  where  this  kind 
of  onion  is  much  cultivated,  I understand  that  it  is  the  practice  to  plant  on 
the  shortest  day,  and  take  up  on  the  longest.  The  smallest  onions  used  for 
planting  swell,  and  become  very  fine  and  large,  as  well  as  yield  off-sets ; the 
middle-sized  and  larger  bulbs  produce  greater  clusters.5 — Hort.  Trans,  vol. 
iii,  p.  305. 

“Dymond  states  (Hort.  Trans,  vol.  iii,  p.  306),  that  in  Devonshire  it  is 
planted  in  rows,  twelve  inches  apart,  and  six  inches5  distance  in  the  row ; 
that  the  plants  are  earthed  up  as  they  grow,  and  that  the  smaller  bulbs  yield 
a greater  increase  than  the  larger.  A similar  practice  is  adopted  by  some 
Scotch  cultivators. — Caled.  Hort.  Mem.  vol.  i,  p.  344,  and  vol.  iv,  p.  216. 

“ Wedgewood  does  not  earth  up,  and  finds  his  bulbs  acquire  a much  larger 
size  than  when  that  practice  is  adopted. — Hort.  Trans,  vol.  iii,  p.  403.  The 
fact  is,  as  we  have  observed  in  generalizing  on  the  subject  of  earthing  up, 
surface-bulbs,  as  the  onion,  turnip,  &c  , are  always  prevented  from  attaining 
their  full  size  by  that  operation,  whatever  they  may  gain  in  other  respects.55 
— Loudon. 

Use. — “The  properties  of  onions  in  no  respect  differ  from  those  of 
garlic  excepting  that  the  former  are  less  pungent,  and  are,  therefore, 
more  generally  used  for  culinary  purposes.  Many  persons,  however,  dis- 
like them  on  account  of  the  strong  and  disagreeable  smell  which  they  com- 
municate to  the  breath.  But  this  inconvenience  is  obviated  by  eating  a few 
raw  leaves  of  parsley,  immediately  after  partaking  of  onions,  the  scent  of 
which  is  thus  nearly  removed,  and  they  are,  at  the  same  time,  rendered 
more  easy  of  digestion.  Vinegar  also  answers  the  same  purpose.55 — Horn. 
Encyc. 


78 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER, 


PARSLEY. 


Ajpium  Petroselinum. — Pcrsil , Fr. — Petersilie.  Ger.  ^ 

The  parsley  is  a hardy  biennial,  a native  of  Sardinia.  The  varieties,  ac- 
cording to  Loudon,  are — 

The  common  plain-leaved  (seldom  cultivated) , I The  broad-leaved,  or  large-rooted  Ham- 
The  curled  or  thick-leaved  (most  esteemed) , I burgh  (cultivated  for  its  cm rot-shaped  root). 

Mr.  RusselPs  Catalogue  mentions  the  following  kinds : 


Curled  or  double — Jlpium  petroselinum  cris- 
pum; 

Dwarf  curled  (very  much  curled),  do.  do.  ; 


Hamburgh,  or  large-rooted,  do.  var.  xuher- 
osum  } 

Siberian  (very  kardy,  single-leafed,  and  of  fine 
flavor). 


and  adds,  u sown  from  April  to  August.  Parsley  seldom  vegetates  under 
five  weeks  after  sowing.  It  is  recommended  to  soak  the  seed  twelve  hours 
in  water  mixed  with  sulphur.  This  process,  with  attentive  watering,  will 
cause  the  seed  to  vegetate  in  less  than  a fortnight.77  The  seed  should  be 
fresh.  Loudon  says,  two  years  old  seed  will  not  grow. 

Culture  of  the  pot-herb  kinds.— u One  sowing  in  spring  will  mostly  furnish 
young  leaves  all  the  year;  though,  to  answer  a constant  demand,  many  per- 
sons make  successive  sowings  from  February  [in  Great  Britain]  to  May. 
Some  also  sow  early  in  autumn  for  young  parsley  in  winter  and  spring ; but 
such  a supply  is  better  provided  by  cutting  dowrn  established  plants.  Sow  in 
a single  drill  along  the  edge  of  any  compartment,  or  occasionally  in  rows 
nine  or  twelve  inches  asunder.  Draw  small  drills,  something  less  than  an 
inch  deep;  in  which  drop  the  seed  moderately  thick,  and  cover  a little  above 
half  an  inch.  The  plants  will  come  up  in  three  or  four  weeks,  and,  wrhen 
two  or  three  inches  high,  may  be  gathered  as  wanted,  all  the  summer,  win- 
ter, and  following  spring  till  May,  when  they  will  go  to  seed.  Have  always 
a young  crop  sowed  timely  in  the  spring  to  succeed  the  declining  old  plants. 
In  gathering  pot-herb  parsley,  cut  close  and  regular.  In  summer,  when  the 
plants  grow  rank,  yielding  more  leaves  than  can  be  used,  cut  them  close  to 
the  bottom,  and  they  will  shoot  up  stocky,  and  in  a regular,  close  growth. 
Observe  also  to  do  the  same  in  autumn,  about  the  end  of  September,  that  the 
plants  may  form  heads  of  fresh  young  leaves  before  winter.  On  the  ap- 
proach of  frosty  weather,  protect  them  with  haulm,77  straw,  or  any  thing 
else,  which  will  serve  for  a defense  against  cold. 

Culture  of  Hamburgh  Parsley. — “ To  obtain  large  roots,  allot  a compart- 
ment where  the  soil  is  deep,  and  has  been  well  digged.  Any  common  mould 


PARSNEP. 


79 

will  suit,  if  dry  and  not  too  rich.  Sow  in  February,  [soon  as  the  frost  is  well 
out  of  the  ground,]  March,  or  early  in  April,  in  one  or  more  beds,  either  in 
drills  nine  inches  asunder,  or  broad-cast,  and  rake  in.  The  plants  should  be 
thinned  to  nine  inches  distance,  to  give  room  for  proper  growth  in  the  roots  ; 
for  use  in  August,  September,  October,  and  thence  till  the  following  spring. 
On  the  approach  of  frost,  take  up  some  roots,  and  preserve  them  in  sand.  A 
sowing  may  be  made  the  third  week  in  June,  where  young  roots  are  wanted 
in  winter.”  , 

The  Siberian,  or  single-leafed  parsley,  is  cultivated  in  fields.  It  may  be 
sown  very  early  with  oats  or  other  spring  grain,  mixed  with  grass  seed. — 
See  Encyc.  of  Agr.  pa  rag.  5081. 

Uses. — This  herb  is  much  used  and  highly  valued  for  culinary  purposes  as 
a pot-herb,  for  garnishes,  &c.  The  Hamburgh  parsley  is  esteemed  for  its 
large,  carrot-like  root,  drawn  in  autumn  and  winter  for  the  table.  In  field 
cultivation  it  is  said  to  be  a preservative  from  rot  in  sheep,  and  efficacious  in 
curing  greasy  and  surfeited  horses,  &c. — See  New  England  Farmer , vol.  vi, 
page  1S2. 


PARSNEP. 

Pastinaca  saliva . — Panais , Fr. — Pastinake , Ger. 

Loudon  observes,  that  “ There  is  only  one  variety  of  the  Parsnep  in  ge- 
neral cultivation  in  Great  Britain,  but  the  French  possess  three — the  Coquaine 
the  Lisbonaise , and  the  Siam..  The  Coquaine , Dr.  Maculloch  informs  us, 
(Calcd.  Hort.  Mem.  vol.  i,  p.  408,)  is  much  cultivated  in  Guernsey  and  Jer- 
sey. The  roots  run  sometimes  four  feet  deep,  and  are  rarely  so  small  in  cir- 
cumference as  six  inches,  having  been  known  to  reach  sixteen.  The  leaves 
of  this  variety  grow  to  a considerable  height,  and  proceed  from  the  -whole 
crown  of  the  root.  The  Lisbonaise  does  not  extend  to  so  great  a depth  as  the 
Coquaine  ; but  the  root  is  equally  good  in  quality,  and  what  is  lost  in  length 
is  gained  in  thickness.  The  leaves  are  small  and  short,  and  only  proceed 
from  the  center  of  the  crown.  The  Siam  has  a root  of  a yellowish  color, 
not  very  large,  but  tender,  and  more  rich  in  taste  than  the  other  varieties.” 
Soil. — The  soil  should  be  light,  deep,  and  free  from  stones.  It  should  be 
dug  or  trenched  before  sowing,  one  good  spade  deep,  at  least,  (some  writers 
say  two  spades  deep.)  being  careful  to  pulverize  the  soil  thoroughly,  that  the 
roots  may  have  no  obstruction  to  prevent  their  running  down  long  and 
straight.  If  the  soil  be  proper  for  them,  it  is  said  they  will  not  require  much 
manure  ; and  wrhat  is  used  should  be  perfectly  decomposed,  or,  if  recent,  be 


80 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


deposited  at  the  bottom  of  the  trench.  They  do  not  impoverish  the  soil,  but, 
like  onions,  may  be  raised  many  years  in  the  same  spot. 

Seed  estimate,  and  sowing. — Sow  as  early  as  the  ground  is  thawed,  if  not 
too  wet.  Deane  observed,  that  “ some  sow  them  in  the  fall ; but  that  is  not 
a good  practice,  because  the  ground  will  grow  too  close  and  stiff  for  want  of 
stirring  in  the  spring  ; which  cannot  well  be  performed  in  gardens,  without 
danger  of  injuring  the  roots.  And  weeds  will  be  more  apt  to  abound  among 
them  if  they  be  sown  in  autumn.”  Loudon  says,  u For  a bed  five  feet  by 
twenty,  the  plants  to  remain  thinned  to  eight  inches’  distance,  half  an  ounce 
of  seed  is  the  usual  proportion.”  Deane  recommends  sowing  them  in  rows 
across  beds,  fifteen  inches  apart,  and  to  allow  six  inches  from  plant  to  plant 
at  the  last  thinning,  which  may  be  early,  as  they  are  not  often  hurt  by  in- 
sects. 

Culture. — When  the  plants  are  about  one,  two,  or  three  inches  high,  in 
May  or  June,  let  them  be  thinned  and  cleared  from  weeds  either  by  hand  or 
small  hoeing.  Keep  them  afterwards  clear  from  weeds,  till  the  leaves  cover 
the  ground,  after  which  no  further  culture  will  be  required.  Parsneps  will 
continue  growing  till  the  frosts  are  very  severe,  and  are  not  good  for  use  till 
they  have  become  ripe,  late  in  autumn.  Any  thing  which  is  to  be  used  early 
in  the  season  may  be  sown  with  parsneps,  such  as  carrots  to  draw  young, 
radishes,  lettuces,  &c. 

Preserving  during  winter. — The  parsnep  is  not  so  liable  as  the  carrot  to  be 
hurt  by  frost  if  left  in  the  ground,  and  some  let  them  remain  where  they 
grew  through  winter.  But  the  best  way  is  to  dig  them  some  time  in  No- 
vember. They  should  not  be  wounded  nor  bruised  in  digging ; neither 
should  the  tops  be  cut  off  very  close  to  the  roots,  nor  any  of  the  lateral  roots 
cut  off.  In  either  case  the  roots  will  rot  or  become  bitter.  “ Many  lose 
their  parsneps,  or  make  them  sprout,  by  putting  them  in  a warm  cellar.  It 
is  better  to  keep  them  in  some  out-house,  or  in  a cellar  that  freezes  ; for  no 
degree  of  frost  ever  hurts  them.  But  to  prevent  their  drying  too  much,  it  is 
best  to  cover  them  with  dry  sods,  or  else  bury  them  in  sand  that  has  no 
moisture  in  it.  Beach  sand  is  improper,  because  the  salt  in  it  will  make 
them  vegetate.” — Deane. 

Field  culture  of  parsneps. — In  giving  an  account  of  the  agriculture  of  the 
island  of  Jersey,  an  English  writer  says,  u Parsneps  are  grown  by  every  far- 
mer, and  either  by  the  spacie  culture  alone,  by  the  plow  and  spade,  or  by  the 
small  and  great  plow  ; any  soil  in  good  heart  and  tilth  suits  them,  but  pecu- 
liarly a deep  loam ; and  in  the  same  spot,  generally,  are  raised  beans,  peas, 
cabbage,  and,  occasionally,  potatoes. 

u When  the  plowing  or  digging  is  completed,  the  field  is  once  harrowed; 
straight  lines  are  then  drawn  across,  by  means  of  a gardener’s  rake,  usually 
from  north  to  south  ; women  then  proceed  with  dibbles,  and  set  the  beans  in 
rows,  at  a distance  of  four  inches,  or  five  inches,  from  bean  to  bean,  in  four- 


PARSNEPS. 


81 


three,  and  sometimes  two  ranks  of  beans,  leaving  intervals  of  between  five 
and  six  feet  between  each  of  the  sown  rows.  In  the  use  of  the  dibble,  and 
in  dropping  the  beans,  the  women  have  acquired  considerable  dexterity.  In 
many  instances  they  are  followed  by  children,  who  drop  into  each  hole  made 
by  the  dibble,  after  the  bean,  three  or  four  peas  ; the  parsnep  seed  is  then 
sown  at  the  rate  of  one  third  to  one  half  of  a bushel  to  the  acre.77 — Quayle’s 
General  View  of  the  Norman  Islands. 

Use. — The  writer  above  quoted  asserts,  that,  in  the  island  of  Jersey,  pars- 
nep “ is  eaten  with  meat,  with  milk,  and  with  butter;  but  not,  as  is  the 
common  mode  of  using  it  as  human  food  in  England,  with  salt  fish,  or,  as  in 
Ireland,  together  with  potatoes. 

“ The  next  most  valuable  application  of  this  root  is  hog-feeding.  At  first 
it  is  given  to  the  animal  in  a raw  state,  afterwards  boiled  or  steamed,  and. 
finally,  for  a week  or  fortnight,  with  bean  and  oat-meal.  A hog  treated  in 
this  way  is  sufficiently  fatted  for  killing  in  about  six  weeks.  Its  flesh  is  held 
superior  to  that  arising  from  any  other  food,  and  does  not  waste  in  boiling. 

“ Bullocks  are  also  fatted  with  parsneps  in  about  three  months ; their 
flesh  is  here  considered  of  superior  flavor  to  any  other  beef,  and  commands, 
on  that  account,  an  additional  half-penny  in  the  pound  on  the  price.  To 
milch  cows  they  are  also  usually  given  ; on  this  diet,  the  cream  assumes  a 
yellow  color.  By  the  accounts  here  given,  it  appears,  in  proportion  to  the 
milk,  to  be  more  abundant,  than  when  the  animal  is  kept  on  any  other  food 
whatever.  When  the  cow  receives  at  the  rate  of  thirty-five  pounds  per  day, 
with  hay,  seven  quarts,  ale  measure,  of  the  milk,  produce  seventeen  ounces 
of  butter.  It  is  generally  allowed  that  the  flavor  of  the  butter  is  superior  to 
any  other  produced  in  winter. 

“ Geese  are  sometimes  shut  up  with  the  hogs  to  fatten  on  parsneps,  which 
they  will  eat  raw.  The  root  is  also  given  boiled ; and  for  a week  before 
killing  they  are  fed  with  oats  or  barley  only.  Horses  eat  this  root  greedily ; 
but  in  this  island  it  is  never  given  them,  as  it  is  alleged  that,  fed  on  this  food, 
their  eyes  are  injured.  About  Morlais,  horses  are  not  only  ordinarily  fed  on 
parsneps,  but  they  are  considered  as  the  best  of  all  food,  superior  even  to 
oats.77 

To  save  seed. — Transplant  some  of  the  best  roots  as  early  as  the  frost  will 
permit  in  the  spring,  two  feet  asunder,  inserted  over  the  crown.  They  will 
produce  seed  plentifully  in  autumn 


82 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


PEAS. 

Pisum  sativum — Pois , Fr. — Erbse , Ger. 


The  pea  is  a hardy  annual,  a native  of  the  south  of  Europe,  cultivated  iis 
Great  Britain  from  time  immemorial,  and  in  this  country  from  its  first  set- 
tlement. 

Varieties. — These  are  numerous : those  mentioned  in  Mr.  Russell’s  Cata- 
logue are — 


Early  Washington,  or  true  Mo.y  Tea,  ( extra 
early  and  fine — grows  to  the  height  of  two  and 
a half  feet ;) 

Early  double-blossomed,  frame,  {early  and 
fine — three  feet  ;) 

Early  frame,  (two  and  a half  feet  ;) 

Early  golden  Hotspur  (three feet  ;) 

Early  Charlton,  (three  feet ;) 

Dwarf  blue  imperial,  (two  feet — a supet'ior 
variety  ;) 

Dwarf  blue  Prussian,  ( two  and  a half  feet ;) 

Dwarf  Spanish,  or  fan,  (one  foot ;) 


Dwarf  marrowfat,  (three  and  a half  feet  ;) 
Dwarf  sugar,  (pods  eaten— three  feet  ,*) 
Matchless,  or  true  tall  marrowfat,  (six 
feet  ;) 

Knight’s  tall  marrows  ; 

Tall,  crooked  podded  sugar,  (pods  eaten— 

six  feet  ;) 

Ladies’  finger  marrows,  (a  prodigious  bear- 
er, and  delicate  rating  pea  ;) 

New  nonpareil  pea,  (a  new  and  proluctive 
sort  from  Scotland  ;) 

Knight’s  dwarf  marrows. 


u The  Charltons  are  not  only  very  early,  but  great  bearers,  and  excellent 
peas  for  the  table ; and  are  therefore  equally  well  fitted  for  the  early  and  for- 
ward succession  crops,  and  inferior  to  few  even  for  the  main  summer  crops. 
The  frame  pea  may  indeed  he  raised  without  the  assistance  of  heat  for  a for- 
ward crop,  and,  if  a genuine  ‘ort,  will  fruit  a few  days  sooner  than  the  Charl- 
ton ; but  it  grows  low,  and  bears  scantily.  The  Hotspur  is  hardy  and  proli- 
fic, and  makes  returns  nearly  as  quick  as  the  Charlton,  and  about  a fortnight 
before  the  marrowfat.  The  sorts  already  specified,  therefore,  embrace  the 
best  for  sowings  made  from  the  end  of  October  till  the  middle  of  January, 
and  for  late  crops,  raised  between  the  middle  of  June  and  the  beginning  of 
August.  The  Charltons  and  Hotspur  may  be  sown  in  May  for  late  fall 
crops;  in  June  for  a smaller  supply;  and  in  July  along  with  the  frames  for 
the  last  returns.” — Loudon. 

Times  of  sowing. — “ The  dwarfs  are  generally  employed  in  hot-bed  cul- 
ture, which,  however,  succeeds  badly,  and  is  neither  worth  preserving  lior 
describing,  and  the  less  so,  as  early  crops  may  be  more  certainly  had  by  sow- 
ing in  the  fall,  in  sheltered  situations,  and  covering  during  the  winter  with  a 
layer  of  leaves,  and  another  of  long  stable-litter  loosely  applied  to  keep  the 
leaves  in  their  places.  After  the  earth  takes  a temperature  favorable  to  ve- 
getation, your  pea  sowings  should  be  made  once  a fortnight,  to  keep  up  a re- 
gular and  successive  supply.” — Armstrong . 


PEA. 


83 


Quantity  of  seed. — tc  Of  the  small,  early  kinds,  one  pint  will  sow  a row  of 
twenty  yards;  for  the  larger  sorts,  for  main  crops,  the  same  measure  will 
sow  a row  of  thirty-three  yards.” 

Process  in  sowing. — ■“  For  early  soits,  make  the  drills  one  inch  and  a half 
deep ; and  let  parallel  drills  be  two  feet  and  a half,  three  or  four  feet  asun- 
der. Peas  that  are  to  grow  -without  sticks  require  the  least  room.  For 
summer  crops  and  large  sorts,  make  the  drills  two  inches  deep,  and  four,  five 
or  six  feet  asunder.  As  to  the  distances  along  the  drill,  distribute  the  peas 
according  to  their  size,  and  the  season  ; the  frame,  three  in  the  space  of  an 
inch ; the  Charltons,  Hotspur,  and  dwarf  marrowfat,  two  in  an  inch ; the 
Prussian  blue,  and  middle-sized  sorts,  three  in  two  inches ; the  large  mar- 
rowfat and  Knight’s,  a full  inch  apart;  the  moratto,  rouncivals,  and  most 
larger  sorts,  an  inch  and  a half  apart,  and  the  Patagonian,  two  inches.” 

Soil  and  situation. — “ The  soil  should  be  moderately  rich,  and  the  deeper 
and  stronger  for  the  lofty  growers.  Peas  are  not  assisted,  but  hurt,  by  unre- 
duced dung  recently  turned  in.  A fresh,  sandy  loam,  or  road- stuff,  and  a lit- 
tle decomposed  vegetable  matter,  is  the  best  manure.  The  soil  for  the  early 
crops  should  be  very  dry,  and  rendered  so,  where  the  ground  is  moist,  by 
mixing  sand  with  the  earth  of  the  drills.” — Loudon. 

Armstrong  says,  u A loose  and  warm  soil  is  most  favorable  to  this  vege- 
table, which,  by  the  way,  is  neither  improved  in  quality  nor  quantity  by 
stable  manure.  The  soil  of  Clichy,  and  of  Point  de  Jour  des  Colombe,  &c., 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Paris,  is  a pure  sand,  principally  devoted  to  pea  crops, 
and  yielding  these  most  abundantly  without  the  application  of  dung,  new  or 
old.” 

Subsequent  culture “ As  the  plants  rise  from  half  an  inch  high  to  two  or 
three  inches,  begin  to  draw  earth  to  the  stems,  doing  this  when  the  ground  is 
in  a dry  state,  and  earthing  gradually  higher  as  the  stems  ascend.  At  the 
same  time,  with  the  hoe,  loosen  the  ground  between  the  young  plants,  and 
cut  down  rising  weeds.  Early  crops  should  be  protected  during  hard  frosts 
by  dry  straw,  or  other  light  litter,  laid  upon  sticks  or  brush  wood  ; but  re- 
move the  covering  as  soon  as  the  weather  turns  mild.  If,  in  April,  May, 
and  the  course  of  the  summer,  dry  weather  occurs,  watering  will  be  neces- 
sary, especially  to  plants  in  blossom,  and  swelling  the  fruit ; and  this  trouble 
will  be  repaid  in  the  produce.  Rows  partly  cut  off  may  be  made  up  by 
transplanting.  In  dry  weather,  water,  and  in  hot  weather,  shade,  until  the 
plants  strike.  All  peas  fruit  better  for  sticking,  and  continue  longer  produc- 
tive, especially  the  larger  sorts.  Stick  the  plants,  when  from  six  to  twelve 
inches  high,  as  soon  as  they  begin  to  vine.  Provide  branchy  sticks  of  such 
a height  as  the  sort  will  require  ; for  the  frame  and  Leadman’s  dwarf,  three 
feet  high  ; for  the  Charlton  and  middle-sized,  four  or  five  feet ; for  the  mar- 
rowfat and  larger  kinds,  six  or  eight  feet  ; for  the  rouncival,  and  for  Knight’s 
marrow-pea,  nine  or  ten  feet.  Place  a row  of  sticks  to  each  line  of  peas,  on 


84 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


the  most  sunny  side,  east  or  south,  that  the  attraction  of  the  sun  may  incline 
the  plants  towards  the  sticks.  Place  about  half  the  number  on  the  opposite 
side,  and  let  both  rows  stand  rather  wider  at  top  than  at  the  ground.  Some 
gardeners  stop  the  leading  shoot  of  the  most  early  crop,  when  in  blossom ; a 
device  which  accelerates  the  setting  and  maturity  of  the  fruit. 

To  forward  an  early  crop. — u Sow  or  plant  in  lines  from  east  to  west,  and 
stick  a row  of  spruce-fir  [or  other  evergreen]  branches  along  the  north  side 
of  every  row,  and  sloping  so  as  to  bend  over  the  plants,  at  one  foot  or  eigh- 
teen inches  from  the  ground.  As  the  plants  advance  in  height,  vary  the  po- 
sition of  the  branches,  so  as  they  may  always  protect  them  from  perpendicu- 
lar cold  or  rain,  and  yet  leave  them  open  to  the  full  influence  of  the  spring 
sun.  Some  cover  during  nights,  and  in  severe  weather  with  two  boards, 
nailed  together  lengthwise,  at  right-angles,  which  forms  a very  secure  and 
easily-managed  covering,  but  excludes  light.  A better  plan  would  be  to 
glaze  one  of  the  sides,  to  be  kept  to  the  south,  and  to  manage  such  row- 
glass,  as  they  might  be  called,  when  over  peas,  beans,  spinage,  &c.,  as  hand- 
glasses are  managed,  when  over  cauliflower ; that  is,  to  take  them  off  in  fine 
weather,  or  raise  them  constantly  or  occasionally  by  brick-bats,  or  other 
props,  as  the  weather  and  the  state  of  the  crop  might  require.” — Loudon. 

Management  of  a late  crop. — The  best  variety  for  this  purpose  is  Knight’s 
marrow-pea,  which  may  be  sown  at  intervals  of  ten  days,  from  the  begin- 
ning to  the  end  of  June.  u The  ground  is  dug  over  in  the  usual  way,  and 
the  spaces  to  be  occupied  by  the  future  rows  of  peas  are  well  soaked  with 
water.  The  mould  upon  each  side  is  then  collected  so  as  to  form  ridges 
seven  or  eight  inches  above  the  previous  level  of  the  ground,  and  these 
ridges  are  well  watered.  These  seeds  are  now  sown  in  single  rows,  along 
the  tops  of  the  ridges.  The  plants  grow  vigorously,  owing  to  the  depth  of 
soil  and  abundant  moisture.  If  dry  weather  at  any  time  set  in,  water  is  ap- 
plied profusely  once  a week.  In  this  way,  the  plants  continue  green  and 
vigorous,  resisting  mildew,  and  yielding  fruit  till  subdued  by  frost.” — Hort. 
Trans,  vol.  ii. 

To  save  seed. — u Like  other  vegetables,  the  pea  is  susceptible  of  consider- 
able improvement,  and  by  the  simple  means  of  marking  the  finest  plants  of 
each  variety,  and  keeping  them  for  seed.  Wilson’s  frame,  and  the  Knight 
pea,  have  been  formed  in  this  way,  and  afford  sufficient  proof  of  the  wonders 
produced  by  a very  small  degree  of  observation  and  care.” — Armstrong. 

Field-culture  of  the  pea. — The  most  common  mode  of  sowing  peas  is  broad- 
cast ; but  the  advantages  of  the  row-culture,  in  a crop  so  early  committed  to 
the  ground,  must  be  obvious.  Loudon  says:  u In  Kent,  where  immense 
quantities  of  peas  are  raised,  both  for  gathering  green,  and  for  selling  ripe  to 
seedsmen,  they  are  generally  sown  in  rows  from  eighteen  inches  to  three 
feet  asunder,  according  to  the  kind,  and  well  cultivated  between.  Peas, 
!aid  a foot  below  the  surface,  will  vegetate ; but  the  most  approved  depth  is 


PEA. 


85 


six  inches  in  light  soil,  and  four  inches  in  clay  soil,  for  which  reason  they 
ought  to  be  sown  under  furrow,  when  the  plowing  is  delayed  till  spring. 
Of  all  grain,  beans  excepted,  they  are  in  the  least  danger  of  being  buried  too 
deep.” 

Deane  observed,  that  for  “ Field- peas,  land  that  is  newly  plowed  out  of 
sward  is  generally  accounted  best ; and  land  which  is  high  and  dry,  and  has 
not  been  much  dunged.  A light,  loamy  soil  is  most  suitable  for  them  ; and 
if  it  abound  with  slaty  stones,  it  is  the  better.  But  they  will  do  in  any  dry 
soil.  The  manures  that  suit  peas  best,  are  marl  and  lime.  Our  farmers  do 
not  commonly  allow  a sufficient  quantity  of  seed  for  peas,  in  broad-cast  sow- 
ing. When  peas  are  sowed  thin,  the  plants  will  lie  on  the  ground,  and  per- 
haps rot:  when  they  are  thick,  the  plants  vrill  hold  each  other  up  with 
their  tendrils,  forming  a continued  web,  and  will  have  more  benefit  of  the 
air. 

Insects  and  diseases. — The  Mass.  Agricultural  Repository , for  June,  1822, 
contains  some  remarks  of  the  Hon.  T.  Pickering,  relative  to  a bug  or  fly 
{bruchus  pisi ),  which  preys  on  the  pea,  in  which  he  observes,  that  an  ef- 
fectual remedy  for  this  evil  is  late  sowing ; but  the  hot  sun  of  June  will  so 
pinch  the  vines  of  the  late  sown  peas,  that  the  crop  will  be  small,  unless  the 
land  be  moist  as  well  as  rich.  He  then  details  some  experiments,  by  which 
he  concludes  that  this  insect  is  limited  to  a certain  period  for  depositing  its 
eggs;  and  if  the  tender  pods  are  not  found  till  that  period  has  passed,  the 
peas  will  be  free  from  bugs.  Col  Worthington,  of  Rensselaer  county,  N. 
Y.,  u sowed  his  peas  on  the  10th  of  June,  six  years  in  succession,  and  a bug 
has  never  been  seen  in  his  peas.  Whereas  his  neighbors,  who  have  not 
adopted  this  practice,  have  scarcely  a pea  without  a bug  in  it.  He  supposes 
the  season  for  depositing  the  egg  of  the  pea-bug  is  passed  before  the  peas  are 
in  flower.” — Mem.  of  N.  H.  Board  of  Agriculture , vol.  ii,  p.  23.  u The  only 
insect  that  commonly  injures  our  peas  is  a small  brown  bug  or  fly,  the  egg 
[or  larva]  of  which  is  deposited  in  them  when  they  are  young  and  the  pods 
easily  perforated.  The  insect  does  not  come  out  of  its  nest  till  he  is  fur- 
nished with  short  wings.  They  diminish  the  peas  in  which  they  lodge 
nearly  one  half,  and  their  leavqngs  are  fit  only  for  the  food  of  swine.  The 
bugs,  however,  will  be  all  gone  out  if  you  keep  them  till  the  following 
autumn.  But  they  who  eat  buggy  peas  the  winter  after  they  are  raised, 
must  run  the  venture  of  eating  the  insects.” — Deane's  N.  E.  Farmer.  The 
same  writer  recommends,  when  seed-peas  are  known  or  suspected  to  con- 
tain insects,  to  scald  them  a quarter  of  a minute  in  boiling  water,  spread 
them  about,  and  sow  them  without  delay.  If  any  of  the  bugs  should  be  in 
the  peas,  this  scalding  will  destroy  them ; and  the  peas,  instead  of  being 
hurt,  will  come  up  the  sooner,  and  grow  the  faster. 

Mildew  is  another  evil  attending  peas,  especially  such  as  are  sovrn  late  in 
the  season.  This  disorder  is  supposed  by  Knight  to  be  caused  by  “ a want 


86 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER, 


of  a sufficient  supply  of  moisture  from  the  soil,  with  excess  of  humidity  in 
the  air,  particularly  if  the  plants  be  exposed  to  a temperature  below  that 
to  which  they  have  been  accustomed.”  The  remedy  which  he  recommends 
is,  to  u give  water  rather  profusely  once  a wTeek,  or  nine  days,  even  if  the 
weather  proves  showery.” — See  N.  E.  Farmer , vol.  i,  p.  414. 

Use. — The  use  of  peas  for  soups,  and  other  culinary  purposes,  is  well 
known.  They  are  likewise  very  serviceable  in  fattening  hogs,  for  which 
purpose  they  should  be  harvested  dry,  and  ground  into  meal.  If  the  straw 
be  forward  in  autumn,  and  has  been  harvested  without  injury,  it  will  be  lit- 
tle inferior  to  ordinary  hay  for  feeding  cattle. 

u In  boiling  split  peas,  some  samples,  without  reference  to  variety,  fall  or 
moulder  down  freely  into  pulp,  while  others  continue  to  maintain  their 
form.  The  former  are  called  boilers.  This  property  of  boiling  depends  on 
the  soil : stiff  land,  or  sandy  land  that  has  been  limed  or  marled,  uniformly 
produces  peas  that  will  not  melt  in  boiling,  no  matter  what  the  variety  may 
be.” — Loudon. 

u When  peas  are  sown  before  winter,  or  early  in  spring,  they  are  very 
apt  to  be  eaten  by  mice.  To  prevent  this,  soak  the  peas,  for  a day  or  two, 
in  train  oil,  before  you  sow  them,  which  will  encourage  their  vegetation, 
and  render  them  so  obnoxious  to  mice  that  they  will  not  eat  them.” — Do - 
mestic  Encyclopedia. 


PEPPER,  RED. 

Capsicum . — Piment , Fr. — Spanischer  Pfeffcr,  Ger. 

This  plant  requires  a warm,  rich  soil,  and  a favorable  exposure.  The 
seeds  may  be  placed  in  rows,  three  feet  apart,  or  in  hills,  at  that  distance 
from  each  other.  In  dry  weather  they  will  need  watering,  and  should  be 
kept  clear  of  weeds  by  frequent  hoeing.  The  seeds  are  best  preserved  bj 
running  a string  through  the  pods,  and  hanging  them  in  a dry  place. 

Use. — u Pepper  is  an  excellent  spice,  which  should  always  be  coarsel} 
ground,  and  eaten  only  with  fat,  smoked,  or  tough  animal  food ; with  cab- 
bages, cucumbers,  and  other  flatulent  and  cold  vegetables ; and  likewise 
with  fish,  and  all  substances  that  are  difficult  to  be  digested.  On  the  conti- 
nent of  Europe,  this  spice  is  highly  esteemed  for  its  efficacy  in  relieving 
flatulency,  weak,  or  impaired  digestion,  and  the  giddiness  which  generally 
accompanies  the  complaint  last  mentioned.  For  this  purpose,  from  six  to 
ten  grains  are  directed  to  be  swallowed  every  morning,  previously  to  taking 
food  ; such  practices,  however,  ought  to  be  adopted  only  in  cases  where  the 
stomach  is  in  a high  degree  vitiated,  or  the  patient  has  been  habituated  to 
the  free  use  of  spices  and  spirituous  liquors.” — Dom.  Encyc. 


POTATO. 


8Y 


POTATO. 

Solarium  Tuberosum . — Pomme  de  Terre , Fr. — Kartoffel , Ger. 

Sir  Joseph  Banks  (ifor£.  Trans,  i,  8) , considers  that  the  potato  was  first 
brought  to  Spain  from  the  mountainous  parts  of  South  America,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Quito.  To  England,  however,  this  root  found  its  way  by  a 
different  route,  being  brought  from  Virginia  by  the  colonists  sent  out  by  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh,  in  1586. 

Varieties. — These  are  very  numerous,  not  only  from  the  facility  of  pro- 
curing new  sorts  by  raising  them  from  seed,  but  because  any  variety  culti- 
vated for  a few  years,  in  the  same  soil  and  situation,  as  in  the  same  garden 
or  farm,  acquires  a peculiarity  of  character  and  habit,  which  distinguishes  it 
from  the  same  variety  in  a different  soil  and  situation.  Dr.  Hunter,  in  his 
Georgical  Essays , has  supposed  the  duration  of  a variety  is  limited  to  four- 
teen years  : and  Knight  concurs  with  him  in  opinion.  Potatoes,  which  are 
excellent  in  Ireland,  Nova  Scotia,  and  other  high  northern  latitudes,  do  not 
answer  a good  purpose  in  New  England.  The  potato  taken  from  the  south 
prospers  better,  such  as  the  River  Plate,  or  long  red  potato,  which  has  suc- 
ceeded well  in  Massachusetts.  Loudon  asserts,  that  the  best  mode  to  order 
potatoes  for  seed  is,  to  give  a general  description  of  the  size,  color,  form,  and 
quality  wanted,  and  whether  for  an  early  or  late  crop,  without  being  guided 
by  the  names  attached  to  any  varieties. 

Propagation. — The  potato  may  be  propagated  from  seed,  cuttings,  or  layers 
of  the  green  shoots,  sprouts  from  the  eyes  of  the  tubers  [roots] , or  portions 
of  the  tubers  containing  a bud  or  eye,  or  by  planting  the  tubers  whole.  The 
object  of  the  first  method  is  to  procure  a new  or  improved  variety  ; of  the 
second,  little  more  than  curiosity,  or  to  multiply,  as  quickly  as  possible,  a 
rare  sort ; and  of  the  third,  to  save  the  tubers  for  food.  The  methods,  by 
portions  of  the  tubers  [the  roots  cut  in  pieces] , or  whole  potatoes,  are  the 
best,  and  almost  universally  practiced,  for  the  general  purposes  both  of  field 
and  garden  culture. 

By  seed. — ■“  Take  the  apples,  in  the  beginning  of  October  [or  whenever 
they  are  ripe],  before  the  frost  has  hurt  them  ; hang  them  up  by  the  foot 
stalks,  in  a dry  closet,  where  they  will  not  freeze  ; let  them  hang  till  March, 
or  April ; then  mash  the  apples,  wash  the  seeds  from  the  pulp,  and  dry  them 
in  a sunny  window.  Sow  the  seeds  in  a bed  about  the  first  of  May.  When 
the  plants  are  four  or  five  inches  high,  transplant  them  into  ground  well  pre- 
pared, one  or  two  plants  in  a hill.’7 — Deane.  Seeds  from  the  same  ball  will 
produce  a great  variety  of  kinds,  some  of  which  may  be  of  little  value  ; and 
in  order  to  make  the  most  of  such  experiments,  it  will  be  well  to  proceed 
according  to  the  following  directions,  extracted  from  some  remarks  by  Gol. 


88 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


Pickering,  contained  in  a pamphlet  published  by  the  Essex  Agricultural  So- 
ciet}r,  Mass. ; this  society  having  awarded  premiums  for  the  best  potatoes 
raised  from  the  seed. 

1 . “ Seeing  the  seeds  in  the  same  ball  will  produce  various  sorts  of  pota- 
toes, it  will  be  indispensably  necessary,  that  each  young  plant  grow  at  the 
distance  of  eight  or  ten  inches  apart. 

2.  c‘  In  autumn,  or  as  soon  as  the  vines  or  stems  of  the  plants  die,  and  the 
young  potatoes  are  dug  up,  those  of  each  plant  are  to  be  saved  by  them- 
selves, and  it  will  be  easy  to  put  each  sort  in  a separate  paper  bag.  Those 
potatoes  will  be  very  small,  perhaps  from  the  size  of  a pigeon’s  down  to  a 
sparrow’s  egg. 

3.  “ In  the  ensuing  spring,  the  potatoes  of  each  sort,  that  is,  the  potatoes 
of  each  bag,  must  be  planted  by  themselves,  and,  if  not  in  distinct  rows, 
then  stakes,  driven  into  the  ground,  should  mark  the  divisions  of  the  several 
sorts  in  the  same  rows,  leaving  a space  of  about  two  feet  between  one  sort 
and  another,  to  guard  against  any  mixture. 

4.  “ In  the  time  for  harvesting  them  in  the  second  year,  the  potatoes  [if 
grown  in  a good  soil]  will  be  large  enough  to  be  boiled,  to  ascertain  their 
quality.  Each  sort  must  be  tried  by  itself.  Such  as  are  watery,  and  are 
ill-flavored,  may  be  at  once  thrown  aside,  for  the  use  of  live  stock.  Every 
other  sort,  so  valuable  as  to  be  thought  worth  cultivating,  must  be  kept  un- 
mixed, by  putting  each  kind  in  a separate  bag  or  cask.” — N.  E.  Farmer , 
vol.  vi,  p.  286. 

The  modes  of  propagating  by  layers,  cuttings  of  the  vines,  suckers, 
sprouts,  &c.,  are  rather  curious  than  useful,  and  are  therefore  here  omitted, 
but  may  be  seen  in  detail  in  the  Encyc.  of  Gard.  p.  620. 

By  portions  of  the  tubers  [or  cuttings  of  the  roots] . — u In  making  the  sets 
or  sections,  reject  the  extreme  or  watery  end  of  the  tuber,  as  apt  to  run  too 
much  to  haulm  [vine],  and  having  the  eyes  small,  and  in  a cluster;  reject 
also  the  root,  or  dry  end,  as  more  likely  to  be  tardy  in  growth,  and  produce 
the  curl.  Then  divide  the  middle  of  the  potato,  so  as  to  have  not  more  than 
one  good  eye  in  each  set.  When  the  potato-scoop  [an  instrument  for  dig- 
ging out  the  eyes  of  potatoes]  is  used,  take  care  to  apply  it  so  as  the  eye  or 
bud  may  be  in  the  center  of  each  set,  which  this  instrument  produces,  of  a 
semi-globular  form.  The  larger  the  portion  of  tuber  left  to  each  eye,  so 
much  the  greater  will  be  the  progress  of  the  young  plants.” — Loudon. 

By  some  experiments  which  were  made  by  J.  Whitlaw,  Esq.,  and  given 
in  detail  in  the  N.  E.  Farmer , vol.  i,  p.  53,  and  vol.  iv,  p.  314,  these  two  im- 
portant facts  were  made  apparent : 1st.  Large  potatoes  are  much  better  for 
seed  than  small  ones.  2d.  It  is  best  to  cut  off  the  but  and  top-ends  from 
each  potato,  and  cut  the  middle  pieces  into  quarters,  before  planting.  Knight, 
the  famous  English  horticulturist,  has  found,  that,  for  a late  crop,  small  sets 
[seed  potatoes]  may  be  used ; because  the  plants  of  the  late  varieties  always 


POTATO. 


89 


acquire  considerable  age  before  they  begin  to  generate  tubers ; but  for  an 
early  crop,  he  recommends  the  largest  tubers ; and  he  has  found,  that  these 
not  only  afford  very  strong  plants,  but  also  such  as  readily  recover  when  in- 
jured by  frost ; for,  being  fed  by  a copious  reservoir  beneath  the  soil,  a re- 
production of  vigorous  stems  and  foliage  soon  takes  place,  when  those  first 
produced  are  destroyed  by  frost  or  other  cause.  He  adds,  “ When  the  planter 
is  anxious  to  obtain  a crop  within  the  least  possible  time,  he  will  find  the 
position,  in  which  the  tubers  are  placed  to  vegetate,  by  no  means  a point  of 
indifference  ; for  these,  being  shoots  or  branches  which  have  grown  thick 
instead  of  elongating,  retain  the  disposition  of  branches  to  propel  the  sap 
to  their  leading  buds,  or  points  most  distant  from  the  stems  of  the  plants  of 
which  they  once  formed  parts.  If  the  tubers  be  placed  with  their  leading 
buds  upwards,  a few  very  strong  and  very  early  shoots  will  spring  from 
them ; but  if  their  position  be  reversed,  many  weaker  and  later  shoots  will 
be  produced  ; and  not  only  the  earliness,  but  the  quality  of  the  produce;  in 
size,  will  be  much  affected.” — Hort.  Trans,  iv,  p.  448. 

IVPMahon  advises  to  cut  seed  potatoes  u a week  before  planting,  in  order 
that  the  wounds  should  have  time  to  form  a dry  crust ; for,  if  planted  im- 
mediately after  being  cut,  they  imbibe  too  much  moisture,  many  of  them 
rot,  and  the  rest  are  greatly  weakened  thereby.”  Some  advise  to  wet  seed 
potatoes,  and  roll  them  in  pulverized  plaster  of  Paris,  immediately  before 
planting. 

From  an  experiment  made  by  a person  in  the  employ  of  the  Hon.  Josiah 
Quincy,  the  particulars  of  which  are  given  in  Mass.  Agr.  Repos,  vol.  v,  p.  64, 
it  appears  that  the  product  of  certain  rows,  planted  with  whole  potatoes,  ex- 
ceeded an  equal  extent  of  adjoining  rows  more  than  one  third.  A writer  for 
the  N.  E.  Farmer , vol.  i,  p.  330,  gives  an  experiment,  which  tends  to  the 
conclusion  that  potatoes  planted  whole  produce  more  than  those  which  are 
cut.  The  experiments  of  most  cultivators,  however,  are  in  favor  of  cutting. 
Dr.  Cooper,  in  the  last  Philadelphia  edition  of  WillicK’s  Domestic  Encyclopedia , 
says,  u The  best  mode  [with  regard  to  seed  potatoes]  appears  to  be  this : — 
Choose  your  potatoes  for  planting  of  a moderate  size,  rather  large  than  small, 
for  there  is  no  good  reason  to  be  assigned  for  breeding  from  diminutive 
parents ; cut  your  potatoes  into  sets,  two  eyes  to  a set ; throw  away,  with- 
out hesitation,  into  the  hog-trough  all  the  inferior  and  diminutive  eyes, 
choosing  your  sets  from  the  middle  of  the  potato ; do  not  cut  the  potato  down 
the  middle.”  Loudon  observes,  “ In  preparing  the  sets  of  potatoes,  some 
cultivators  recommend  large  sets,  others  small  potatoes  entire.  Others,  on 
the  ground  of  experience,  are  equally  strenuous  in  support  of  small  cuttings, 
sprouts,  shoots,  or  even  only  the  eyes  or  buds.  With  all  these  different  sorts 
of  sets,  good  crops  are  stated  to  have  been  raised,  though  tolerable-sized  cut- 
tings of  pretty  large  potatoes,  with  two  or  three  good  eyes  or  buds  in  each, 
are  probably  to  be  preferred.  A very  slight  exercise  of  common  sense 


90 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


might  have  saved  the  advocates  of  shoots,  scooped-out  eyes,  &c.,  their  ex- 
periments and  arguments,  it  being  evident,  as  Brown  has  observed,  to  every 
one  that  has  any  practical  knowledge  of  the  nature  of  vegetables,  that  the 
strength  of  the  stem  in  the  outset  depends,  in  direct  proportion,  upon  the 
vigor  and  power  of  the  set.  The  set,  therefore,  ought  to  be  large,  rarely 
smaller  than  the  fourth  part  of  the  potato,  and  if  the  root  is  of  small  size, 
one  half  of  the  potato  may  be  profitably  used.  At  all  events,  rather  err  in 
giving  over-large  sets,  than  in  making  them  too  small ; because,  by  the  first 
error,  no  great  loss  can  be  sustained,  whereas,  by  the  other,  a feeble  and  late 
crop  may  be  the  consequence.77  Deane  says,  44  The  shooting  parts  exist  in 
a potato  in  the  form  of  a tree,  of  which  the  stock  is  at  the  but  or  root-endv 
I therefore  take  care  to  cut  athwart  those  parts  as  little  as  possible  ; though 
they  will  grow  any  way,  the  greater  length  of  shooting  stem  there  is  in  a 
set,  the  more  strong  and  vigorous  will  be  its  growth  at  first.77 

Quantity  of  sets. — Abercrombie  directs,  for  a plot  of  the  early  and  secondary 
crops)  eight  feet  wide  by  sixteen  in  length,  planted  in  rows,  fifteen  inches 
asunder  by  nine  inches  in  the  row,  a quarter  of  a peck  of  roots  or  cuttings. 
For  full-timed  and  main  crops , a compartment,  twelve  feet  wide  by  thirty- 
two  in  length,  planted  in  rows  two  feet  distant,  half  a peck.  For  field  culti- 
vation, English  writers  say  that  it  requires  twenty  bushels  and  a half  to 
plant  an  acre  with  cut  potatoes,  and  thirty-seven  bushels  and  a quarter  of 
whole  potatoes 

Soil. — “ The  soil,77  says  Loudon, li  in  which  the  potato  thrives  best,  is  a 
light  loam,  neither  too  dry  nor  too  moist,  but  if  rich,  so  much  the  better. 
They  may,  however,  be  grown  well  on  many  other  sorts  of  land,  especially 
those  of  the  mossy,  moory,  and  other  similar  kinds  where  they  are  free 
from  stagnant  moisture.  The  best  flavored  potatoes  are  almost  always  pro- 
duced from  a newly  broken-up  pasture-ground,  not  manured,  or  from  any 
new  soil,  as  the  site  of  a grubbed-up  copse  or  hedge,  or  the  site  of  old  build- 
ings or  roads.  The  best  climate  for  the  potato  is  one  rather  moist  than  dry, 
and  temperate  or  cool  rather  than  hot.  Hence  the  excellence  of  the  Irish 
potatoes,  which  grow  in  a dry,  loamy,  calcareous  soil,  and  moist  and  tempe- 
rate climate ; and  hence,  also,  the  inferiority  of  the  potatoes  of  France, 
Spain,  Italy,  and  even  Germany.  In  short,  the  potato  is  grown  no  where 
in  the  world  to  the  same  degree  of  perfection  as  in  Ireland  and  Lancashire, 
and  not  even  in  the  south  of  England,  so  well  as  in  Scotland  and  the  north 
and  western  counties;  all  which  is,  in  our  opinion,  clearly  attributable  to 
the  climate.77 

Although  a light  loam  is  a proper  soil  for  the  potato  in  a cool  and  moist 
climate,  a strong  and  heavy  loam  is  most  suitable  for  the  same  root  in  a dry 
and  hot  climate.  In  a paper  read  before  the  New  York  Horticultural  Society, 
in  1823,  by  William  Wilson,  an  experienced  horticulturist,  are  the  following 
remarks  on  this  subject ; — 44  Those  soils  which  prove  the  very  bane  of  the 


POTATO. 


91 


potato  here  fin  the  United  States]  are  just  such  as  prove  the  most  congenial 
for  it  in  Britain.  And  so,  on  the  contrary,  the  best  soils  by  far  for  pro- 
ducing the  driest  and  best  flavored  potatoes  here,  and  altogether  the  most 
abundant  crops,  are  those  of  a strong,  heavy  loam/1  These  assertions  are 
corroborated  by  a number  of  experiments,  mentioned  in  the  paper  from 
which  they  are  extracted.  Mr.  Buel,  of  Albany,  likewise  asserts  that  “the 
best  potatoes  are  grown  upon  cold,  moist,  but  porous  and  rich  soils.” — Am. 
Farmer , vol.  ix,  p.  409. 

Methods  of  planting. — These  are  various.  If  the  land  is  rough,  hard,  or 
stony,  the  common  mode  of  planting  in  hills  is,  perhaps,  the  most  expedient. 
But  if  it  be  somewhat  mellow,  drills  are  to  be  preferred.  Dr.  Cooper  says, 
44  If  your  soil  is  stiff  and  wet,  plow  it  in  ridges  ; if  sandy  and  dry,  plow  it 
flat.  Plow  it  deep.  Plant  your  sets  in  drills  marked  out  by  the  plow  or 
the  hoe.  The  plants  should  be  dibbled  in,  six  inches  deep,  on  long  dung, 
scattered  not  sparingly  along  the  drills,  then  covered  with  about  four  inches 
of  mould. 

The  drills  should  be  in  threes  EEEEE:  one  foot  apart ; the  plants  should 
be  eight  inches  apart,  with  an  interval  on  each  side  of  each  set  of  three 
drills  of  two  feet,  which  will  admit  of  horse-hoeing  between  the  sets  of 
drills,  and  of  hand-weeding  between  each  drill. 

a 


oj  d 


To  have  a good  crop,  you  must  not  spare  dung,  or  spare  labor  in  weeding. 
Some  persons  prefer  sets  of  four  or  five  drills  instead  of  three,  or.  where 
horse-hoeing  is  not  convenient,  the  intervals  may  be  reduced  to  one  foot  be- 
tween each  set  of  drills,  for  the  convenience  of  hand- weeding  5 but,  upon  the 
whole,  the  method  here  first  proposed  is  as  good  as  any.  Forty  loads  of 
lung  per  acre  will  pay  better  than  a less  quantity. 

<4  If  small  potatoes  are  wanted  for  feeding,  the  sets  may  be  at  six  inches 
apart,  and  the  rows  at  nine  inches ; but  the  method  first  here  proposed  ad- 
mits, what  is  essential,  accurate  weeding,  and  sufficient  air  to  circulate  be- 
tween the  plants.” 

Deane  says,  the  sets  may  be  either  in  single  rows,  three  feet,  or  double, 
one  foot  apart,  and  from  seven  to  nine  inches  asunder  in  the  rows. 

44  An  expeditious  way  of  planting  potatoes  is  as  follows : — After  the 
ground  is  prepared,  by  plowing  and  harrowing,  cut  furrows  with  the  horse- 
plow  forty  inches  apart ; drop  the  sets  in  the  furrows ; then  pass  the  plow 
along  the  back  of  each  furrow,  which  will  throw  the  earth  of  both  furrows 
upon  the  sets  ; and  afterwards  level  the  ground  with  the  back  of  the  har- 
row, or  with  a harrow  that  has  short  tines ; but  it  is  of  no  great  consequence 


92 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


whether  it  be  leveled  at  all.  Another  method  of  planting  is,  to  plow  the 
ground  plain,  keeping  the  furrows  straight  and  regular,  and  drop  sets  in  every 
third  or  fourth  furrow.  But  before  this  is  done,  the  ground  should  be  plowed 
and  made  level  and  fine  with  the  harrow.77 

A writer  for  the  N.  E.  Farmer , vol.  ii,  p.  331,  gives  the  following  as  “an 
easy  and  cheap  method  of  raising  potatoes  : — On  an  even  and  smooth  piece 
of  mowing,  or  pasture  land,  make  deep,  single  furrows,  with  a plow,  at 
three  feet  distance  Fill  these  furrows  with  rye  [or  any  other]  straw,  and 
drop  your  potatoes  six  or  eight  inches  apart  on  the  straw.  Then,  with  a 
hoe,  cover  the  potatoes  by  turning  down  the  plowed  furrows  upon  them. 
They  will  require  no  more  attention  till  they  are  grown.  No  hoeing  will 
be  necessary.  The  same  land  may  be  improved  as  a pasture  for  sheep,  as 
those  animals  will  not  eat,  nor  materially  injure  the  tops  of  the  potatoes.77 

The  after-culture  of  potatoes  consists  in  harrowing,  hoeing,  weeding,  and 
earthing  up.  All  potatoes  require  to  be  earthed  up  ; that  is,  to  have  at  least 
one  inch  in  depth  of  earth  heaped  on  their  roots,  and  extending  six  or  eight 
inches  round  their  stem.  The  reason  is,  that  the  tubers  do  not,  properly 
speaking,  grow  under  the  soil,  but  rather  on,  or  just  partially  bedded  in  its 
surface.  Potatoes  should,  generally,  be  hoed  three  times,  though  twice  will 
do  in  ground  not  infested  with  weeds.  The  last  hoeing  should  be  finished 
before  the  plants  are  in  blossom ; otherwise  the  plants  will  be  apt  to  form  a 
second  set  of  roots,  which  will  not  have  time  to  come  to  maturity,  but  will 
rob  those  first  formed  of  their  nourishment.  If  weeds  are  prevalent,  they 
should  be  cut  up  or  pulled  out,  but  the  plants  should  not  be  earthed  up  in 
that  stage  of  their  growth.  Plaster  of  Paris,  well  pulverized,  and  applied  to 
the  leaves,  has  a beneficial  effect  on  potatoes. 

Pinching  off  the  blossoms. — It  is  now  generally  admitted,  that  a certain  ad- 
vantage, in  point  of  produce,  is  obtained  by  pinching  off  the  blossoms  as  they 
appear  on  the  plants.  The  fact  has  been  repeatedly  proved,  and  satisfac- 
torily accounted  for,  by  Knight,  who  imagines  that  it  will  add  an  ounce  in 
weight  to  the  tubers  of  each  plant,  or  considerably  above  a ton  per  acre. 

Gathering  the  crop . — It  is  believed  that  cultivators  are  apt  to  err  by  gather- 
ing their  potatoes  too  early.  The  roots  continue  to  grow  larger  and  better 
after  the  tops  have  attained  their  full  growth.  The  Hon.  O.  Fiske,  of  Wor- 
cester, in  an  address  to  the  Worcester  Agricultural  Society,  says,  “ Nature 
has  not  accomplished  its  maturation  at  the  period  when  the  vines  decay,  and 
the  farmer  believes  it  to  be  ripe.  It  seems  probable  that  the  earth,  by  some 
unknown  process,  perfects  its  qualities  after  it  has  attained  its  growth.  That 
potatoes  which  have  remained  the  whole  season  in  the  earth  are  more  fari- 
naceous, has  been  ascertained.77  It  may  be  stated,  as  a general  rule,  that 
potatoes  succeed  best  when  planted  early  and  dug  late.  But  it  is  more  ad- 
visable to  harvest  them  before  the  occurrence  of  those  soaking  rains  which 
generally  precede  the  setting  in  of  winter. 


POTATO. 


93 


A mode  of  taking  part  of  a crop  is  mentioned : — “ Having  ascertained  that 
some  of  the  tubers  have  attained  an  eatable  size,  go  along  the  rows,  and 
loosen  the  earth  about  each  plant  with  a blunt  stick,  taking  two  or  three  of  the 
largest  tubers  from  each,  and  returning  the  earth  carefully.” 

The  most  expeditious  way  of  gathering  a potato  crop  is,  first  to  run  fur- 
rows on  each  side  of  the  rows,  and  then  a deep  one  in  the  middle,  which 
turns  up  most  of  the  roots  to  the  surface,  for  the  purpose  of  picking  up  by 
hand.  In  this  way,  however,  we  should  apprehend  some  waste,  and  should 
not  advise  it,  except  where  potatoes  are  plenty,  and  labor  scarce.  A hoe 
with  prongs,  such  as  is  sold  at  the  agricultural  warehouses  generally,  is,  pro- 
bably, the  best  implement  for  gathering  potatoes. 

Securing  the  crop. — Mr.  Buel,  of  Albany,  says,  u There  are  many  erroneous 
notions,  in  regard  to  the  culture  and  treatment  of  the  potato,  which  every 
class  in  society  have  an  interest  in  exploding,  as  the  root  has  become  a ne- 
cessary food  for  every  family.”  These  errors  consist  in  supposing  “ 1st.  That 
potatoes  should  be  grown  on  a dry,  warm  soil.  2d.  That  they  should  be 
dried  in  the  sun,  or  washed,  to  render  them  pleasant  to  the  eye.  3d.  That 
they  should  be  kept  warm  and  dry  during  winter,  to  fit  them  for  culinary 
uses.  4th.  That  they  should  be  of  large  size.”  In  contradiction  to  these 
popular  opinions,  he  asserts,  “ First , that  the  best  potatoes  are  grown  upon 
cold,  moist,  but  porous  and  rich  soils.  Second , that  it  were  better  the  sun 
never  should  shine  upon  them — that  they  should  be  housed  with  all  the  dirt 
that  adheres  to  them — that  it  is  beneficial  to  add  more  dirt  in  the  bin  or  cask, 
to  exclude  external  air  as  much  as  possible.  And,  third , that  their  surface 
should  be  kept  moist,  and  the  atmosphere,  which  surrounds,  as  little  above 
the  point  of  freezing  as  possible.” 

Potatoes  may  be  kept  during  winter  in  a cellar,  free  from  frost,  or  in  pits 
or  caves  in  the  field.  In  the  latter  case,  they  must  be  so  situated  on  a dry 
knoll,  or  the  side  of  a hill,  as  to  be  secured  from  the  possibility  of  the  pits 
being  pervaded  by  water;  and  they  must  be  so  covered,  first  with  straw  and 
then  with  loam,  as  to  prevent  the  intrusion  of  frost.  They  may,  likewise, 
be  placed  in  barrels,  casks,  or  boxes,  and  if  packed  in  moist  sand,  or  the  loam 
of  the  field  in  which  they  grewT,  they  will  be  preserved  better  than  in  almost 
any  other  situation.  If  they  are  exposed  to  the  sun  and  air  till  the  upper  side 
acquires  a green  color,  they  become  poisonous. 

Use. — The  use  of  the  potato,  as  an  article  of  diet  both  for  man  and  beast, 
is  probably  more  extensive,  and  more  common,  than  that  of  any  other  vege- 
table production.  From  having  no  peculiarity  of  taste,  and  consisting  chiefly 
of  starch,  it  approaches  near  to  the  qualities  of  the  flour  of  grain  ; “ and  for 
this  reason,”  says  Loudon,  “it  is  the  most  universally  liked,  and  can  be  used 
longer  in  constant  succession  by  the  same  individual  without  becoming  un- 
palatable, than  any  other  vegetable,  the  seeds  of  grasses  excepted.”  Neill 


94 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


observes,  “ so  generally  is  it  relished,  and  so  nutritious  is  it  accounted,  that, 
on  many  tables,  it  now  appears  almost  every  day  in  the  year.” 

An  Essay  on  the  Solanum  Tuberosum , by  H.  C.  Worsham,  from  the  Phila- 
delphia Journal  of  the  Medical  and  Physical  Sciences , gives  the  following  sum- 
mary view  of  the  excellent  qualities  of  this  superlative  root : — “ Having  its 
origin  in  a warm  climate,  it  was  supposed  to  be  intolerant  of  cold,  and  upon 
that  account  incapable  of  cultivation  in  a more  northern  clime.  But  expe- 
rience has  shown  the  contrary,  and  the  potato  is  naturalized  almost  in  every 
region.  With  the  lower  classes  of  people,  it  is  one  of  the  greatest  blessings 
which  the  soil  produces,  forming  4 flour  without  a mill,  and  bread  without  an 
oven  ;J  and,  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  an  agreeable,  wholesome  dish,  with- 
out expensive  condiments.  What  resources  does  the  potato  present  to  us? 
Its  stalk,  considered  as  a textile  plant,  furnishes  in  Austria  a sort  of  flax — 
when  burned,  it  yields  much  potash — its  apples,  when  ripe  and  crushed,  fer- 
ment, and  give  spirits  by  distillation — its  tubercles,  made  into  a pulp,  are  a 
substitute  for  soap,  in  bleaching.  Cooked  by  steam,  the  potato  is  a most 
healthy  food.  By  different  manipulations  it  furnishes  two  kinds  of  flour,  a 
gruel  and  a parenchyma,  which  may  be  applied  to  increase  the  bulk  of  bread 
made  from  grain.  Treated  chemically,  it  is  converted  into  beer,  vinegar, 
spirits,  &c” 


The  pumpkin  is  a native  of  India.  Loudon  says  there  are  six  species  in 
cultivation,  but  gives  no  description  of  them.  RusselPs  Catalogue  enume- 
rates the  following  varieties : 


Pumpkins  will  grow  on  any  kind  of  soil,  which  is  proper  for  head-crops, 
but  the  land  cannot  be  made  too  rich  for  them.  The  Farmer’s  Assistant 
thinks  they  will  grow  better,  when  planted  by  themselves,  than  when  raised, 
as  usual,  with  Indian  corn.  The  hills,  in  such  case,  shopld  stand  about 
seven  feet  apart  each  way,  and  a number  of  seeds  should  be  planted  in  each 
hill,  to  make  allowance  for  what  may  be  destroyed  by  insects.  It  will  be 
well,  however,  to  protect  them  by  frames,  covered  by  gauze,  as  directed  p. 
56,  under  the  article  Cucumber. 

Preservation. — Pumpkins  may  be  kept  in  a cellar,  for  this  purpose,  a con- 
siderable part  of  the  winter  j but  the  cellar  must  not  be  too  warm  ; and  care 


PUMPKIN. 

Cucurbita  pepo. — Courge , Fr. — Kurbis , Ger 


Finest  yellow  family  pumpkin, 
Connecticut  field, 

Large  cheese, 


Mammoth,  ( which  have  gi'own  to  226 


lbs.  weight,) 

Seven  years,  {a  fine  sort  to  keep.) 


RADISH. 


05 


must  be  taken  not  to  break  off  the  stems,  but  leave  these  attached  to  them  ; 
otherwise  they  will  soon  commence  rotting,  at  the  places  where  the  stems 
were  broken  off. — Fanner’s  Assistant.  They  may  likewise  be  preserved  in 
mows  of  hay  or  straw,  or  in  any  dry  situation,  in  which  they  are  secure 
from  frost. 

Use. — Loudon  says  of  the  pumpkin,  u Though  commonly  cultivated  in 
gardens  for  curiosity,  yet,  in  some  of  the  country  villages  in  England,  the  in- 
habitants grow  it  on  dunghills,  at  the  backs  of  their  houses,  and  train  the 
shoots  to  a great  length  over  grass.  When  the  fruit  is  ripe,  they  cut  a hole 
in  one  side,  and,  having  taken  out  the  seeds,  fill  the  void  space  "with  sliced 
apples,  adding  a little  sugar  and  spice,  and  then,  having  baked  the  whole, 
eat  it  with  butter. — Neill.  Pumpkin-pie,  Abercrombie  says,  is  very  com- 
mon [in  Great  Britain,  and  proverbially  so  in  New  England.]  On  the  con- 
tinent the  fruit  is  a good  deal  used  in  soups,  and  also  stewed  and  fried  in  oil 
and  butter.’7  Its  culinary  uses  in  the  United  States  are  too  well  known  to 
need  description ; but  some  may  not  be  aware  that  u Pumpkins  are  excel- 
lent for  fattening  horses.  They,  however,  do  not  relish  them  at  first ; and 
therefore  must  be  kept  from  feeding  till  they  are  hungry,  before  the  pump- 
kins are  offered  to  them,  and  let  a little  salt  be  first  sprinkled  on  this  food ; 
when  they  will  soon  grow  fond  of  it,  and  eat  it  readily  without  salt.” 


RADISH. 

Rapkanus  sativus. — Rave,  Fr. — Ret  tig,  Ger. 


The  garden-radish  is  a native  of  China,  and  introduced  into  England  in 
1584. 

Varieties. — Mr.  Russell’s  Catalogue  contains  the  following  : — 


Early  short-top  scarlet,  (a  superior 
sort) , 

Early  frame, 

Long  white  summer,  or  Naples, 
Purple-short  top, 


Long  salmon, 

Cherry,  or  scarlet  turnip-rooted, 
White  turnip-rooted, 
Violet-colored  turnip-rooted, 
Black  fall,  or  Spanish. 


Propagation. — All  the  varieties  are  raised  from  seed. 

Soil  and  situation. — The  soil  should  be  light  and  mellowr,  well  broken  by 
digging.  A scattering  of  the  smaller  growing  sorts  may  be  sown  among 
some  broad-cast  crops  of  larger  growth,  such  as  spinage,  lettuce  and  onion ; 
it  may  also  be  drilled  between  wide  rows  of  beans,  or  on  ground  intended  to 
be  Sown  with  a late  spring  crop. 

Times  of  sowing. — u To  have  a constant  succession  of  radishes  at  table,  the 


96 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


seeds  should  be  sowed  once  a fortnight,  from  April  [or  the  last  of  March] 
to  August.  But  in  midsummer  they  sooner  grow  sticky  and  strong,  than  in 
spring  or  fall.  They  must  therefore  be  eaten  while  they  are  young.  I 
have  had  better  success  with  those  sown  in  August  than  in  any  other 
month.” — j Deane. 

Seed, process  in  sowing , and  common  culture. — “Sow  each  sort  separately; 
and  for  a bed  four  feet  six  inches  by  twelve  feet,  two  ounces  of  seed  will  be 
required  for  the  spring  sorts,  arid  an  ounce  and  a half  for  the  autumn  varieties. 
All  the  kinds  may  be  sown  either  broad-cast  or  in  drills ; but  the  latter  is 
preferable,  as  allowing  the  roots  to  be  drawn  regularly,  with  less  wraste.  If 
you  sow  broad-cast,  it  is  a good  method  to  make  beds  four  or  five  feet  wide, 
with  alleys  between,  a foot  wide,  the  earth  of  which  may  be  used  to  raise 
the  beds,  or  not,  as  the  season  may  make  it  desirable  to  keep  the  beds  dry 
or  moist.  Avoid  sowing  excessively  thick,  as  it  tends  to  make  the  tops  run, 
and  the  roots  stringy.  Rake  in  the  seed  well,  full  half  an  inch  deep,  leav- 
ing none  on  the  surface  to  attract  birds.  If  you  trace  drills,  let  them  be,  for 
the  spindle-rooted  kinds,  half  an  inch  deep,  and  about  two  inches  and  a half 
asunder ; for  the  small  turnip-rooted,  three  quarters  of  an  inch  deep,  and  four 
or  five  inches  asunder ; and  for  the  black  turnip  or  Spanish,  six  or  eight  inches 
asunder,  because  the  root  grows  to  the  size  of  a middle-sized  turnip.  As  the 
plants  advance  in  growth,  thin  them  so  as  to  leave  the  spindle- rooted  about 
two  inches  square  distance,  and  the  other  sorts  three,  four,  or  five,  leaving 
the  most  space  to  the  respective  sorts  in  free,  growing  weathdl*.  In  dry, 
warm  weather,  water  pretty  frequently : this  swells  the  roots,  and  makes 
them  mild  and  crisp.” — Abercrombie. 

11  This  root  being  liable  to  be  eaten  by  W’orms,  the  following  method  is 
recommended  for  raising  them: — Take  equal  quantities  of  buck- wheat  bran, 
and  fresh  horse-dung,  and  mix  them  well  and  plentifully  in  the  ground  by 
digging.  Suddenly  after  this  a great  fermentation  will  be  produced,  and 
numbers  of  toad-stools  will  start  up  in  forty-eight  hours.  Dig  the  ground 
over  again,  and  sow  the  seed,  and  the  radishes  wull  grow  with  great  rapidi- 
ty, and  be  free  from  the  attack  of  insects.  Buck-wheat  bran  is  an  excellent 
manure  of  itself.” — Farmers  Assistant. 

Use. — “ Formerly  the  leaves  were  often  boiled  and  eaten  ; but  now  the 
roots  are  generally  employed.  These  are  eaten  raw  in  spring,  summer,  au- 
tumn, and  winter.  The  young  seedling  leaves  are  often  used  with  cresses 
and  mustard,  as  small  salad ; and  radish-seed  pods,  when  of  plump  growth, 
but  still  young  and  green,  are  used  to  increase  the  variety  of  vegetable  pick- 
les, and  are  considered  a tolerable  substitute  for  capers.” — Loudon. 

u Radishes  are  esteemed  aperient,  attenuating,  and  anti-scorbutic : when 
eaten  in  moderate  quantities,  they  are  in  a certain  measure  salubrious  to  per- 
sons of  strong  habits  ; but  are,  in  general,  apt  to  produce  a considerable  de- 
gree of  flatulency  in  those  whose  stomachs  are  relaxed.  No  radishes,  how- 


RHUBARB. 


9f 

ev er,  ought  to  be  eaten  when  old , or  after  having  been  kept  some  time,  as 
they  are  then  utterly  indigestible,  and  render  the  breath  very  offensive.” — 
Dom.  Encyc. 

Dr.  Cooper  observes,  that  “ Radishes  ought  to  be  sown  in  rich  ground, 
and  carefully  tended,  so  as  to  grow  quickly ; if  not,  they  become  stringy, 
in  which  state  they  are  very  unwholesome  and  indigestible.” 

Seed. — “ Radishes  that  are  for  seed  require  much  room,  as  they  grow  to  a 
large  size.  For  this  purpose  some  of  the  most  thrifty  ones  should  be  left 
standing;  or  else  be  transplanted  to  a place  where  each  shall  have  as  much 
room  as  nearly  a yard  square.  The  ripeness  of  the  seed  is  known  by  the 
pods  turning  brown.  For  this  purpose  the  seeds  must,  be  sown  early  in  the 
spring,  because  they  ripen  slowly.” — Deane. 

For  forcing  radishes , hot-beds,  and  culture  proper  for  hot-bed  productions, 
should  be  resorted  to.  See  Encyc.  of  Gat'd,  p.  596. 


RHUBARB. 

Rheum . — Rubarbe , Fr. — Rubarber , Ger. 

There  are  three  species  of  this  plant  in  cultivation — the  R.  rliaponticum , 
a native  of  Asia ; R.  hybridum , also  a native  of  Asia,  and  R.  palmatum , a 
native  of  Tartary,  distinguished  by  its  elegant  palmate  leaves,  and  consider- 
ed as  the  true  Turkey  or  Russia  rhubarb. 

Fropagatiem  and  culture. — u All  the  sorts  may  be  raised  either  from  seed 
or  dividing  the  roots.  If  from  seed,  which  is  the  best  mode,  sow  in  light, 
deep  earth,  in  spring;  and  the  plants,  if  kept  eight  or  nine  inches  asunder, 
will  be  fit  for  transplanting  in  autumn,  and  for  the  next  spring.  When  the 
roots  are  divided,  care  must  be  taken  to  retain  a bud  on  the  crown  of  each 
section : they  may  be  planted  where  they  are  finally  to  remain.  When  a 
plantation  is  to  be  made,  the  ground,  which  should  be  light  and  rather 
sandy,  but  'well  manured,  should  be  trenched  three  spits,  or  as  deep  as  the 
sub-soil  will  admit,  adding  a manuring  of  well  rotted  hot-bed  dung.  Then 
plant  in  rows,  three  feet  wide  by  two  feet,  in  the  rows  for  the  R.  rhaponti - 
cum  and  palatum , and  five  feet  by  three  feet  in  the  rows  for  the  R.  hybridum. 
No  other  culture  is  required  than  keeping  the  ground  free  from  weeds,  occa- 
sionally stirring  it,  during  summer,  with  a three-pronged  fork,  and  adding  a 
dressing  of  well  rotted  manure  every  autumn  or  spring,  stirring  the  ground 
as  deep  as  possible.  Some  never  allow  the  flower-stalks  to  produce  flow- 
ers ; and  others  cut  them  over  as  soon  as  they  are  done  flowering,  to  prevent 
the  plants  from  being  exhausted  by  the  production  of  seeds.  The  former 
6eems  the  preferable  method,  as  the  flow’er-stalks  of  the  plants  cannot,  like 
5 


08 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


the  leaves,  be  considered  as  preparing  a reserve  of  nourishment  for  the 
roots. 

Blanching. — 44  The  advantages  of  blanching  the  stalks  of  rhubarb,  for  culi- 
nary purposes,  have  been  pointed  out  by  T.  Hare,  Esq. — Hort.  Trans,  vol. 
ii.  4 These  are  two-fold,  namely,  the  desirable  qualities  of  improved  ap- 
pearance and  flavor,  and  a saving  in  the  quantity  of  sugar  necessary  to  ren- 
der it  agreeable  to  the  palate,  since  the  leaf-stalks,  when  blanched,  are  infi- 
nitely less  harsh  than  those  grown  under  the  full  influence  of  light,  in  an 
open  situation.’  It  may. either  be  blanched  by  earthing  up  the  roots  early 
in  spring,  or  earthen  pots  may  be  used,  as  in  blanching  sea-kale. 

Taking  the  stalks. — 4'  Remove  a little  earth,  and,  bending  down  the  leaf 
you  would  remove,  slip  it  off  from  the  crown  without  breaking,  or  using  the 
knife.  The  stalks  are  fit  to  use,  when  the  leaf  is  half  expanded ; but  a 
larger  produce  is  obtained  by  letting  them  remain  till  in  full  expansion,  as  is 
practiced  by  the  market-gardeners.  The  stalks  are  tied  in  bundles  of  a 
dozen  and  upwards,  and  thus  exposed  for  sale. 

To  save  seed. — 44  Leave  one  or  two  of  the  strongest  flower-stalks  to  per- 
fect their  seeds,  which  they  will  do  in  July  and  August. 

Use. — 44  The  two  first  species  are  cultivated  entirely,  and  the  third,  in  gar- 
dens, principally,  for  the  petioles  of  the  root-leaves,  which  are  peeled,  cut 
down,  and  formed  into  tarts  and  pies  in  the  manner  of  apples  and  goose- 
berries. The  B.  hybridum,  affords  the  most  abundant  and  succulent  supply 
for  this  purpose.” — Loudon. 


RUE. 

Ruta  graveolens. — Rue,  Fr. — Rante:  Ger. 

This  is  an  under-shrub,  an  evergreen,  which  prefers  a light  soil,  and  is 
easily  propagated  by  cuttings  or  seeds.  Mr.  Armstrong  says,  11  its  beauty  is 
much  increased  by  lopping  the  branches  close  to  the  earth  every  fourth 
year.” 

Use. — Boerhaave  recommends  the  leaves  of  rue  as  of  great  service  to  per- 
sons of  cold,  phlegmatic  habits ; as  they  quicken  the  circulation,  dissolve  vis- 
cid or  tenacious  juices,  remove  obstructions,  and  promote  the  fluid  secretions. 
Mr.  Wilson,  in  his  Economy  of  the  Kitchen  Garden , says,  44  The  most  effec- 
tual remedy  for  expelling  worms,  that  has  ever  come  under  my  observation, 
was  effected  by  an  infusion  of  the  tops  of  rue,  given  in  gin  to  the  patient,  in 
the  morning,  fasting.” 


SALSIFY. 


99 


SAGE. 

Salvia  officinalis. — Sauge , Fr. — Salbey , Ger. 

Sage  is  a native  of  the  south  of  Europe.  Its  varieties  are — 

The  red,  I The  green, 

The  broad-leafed,  or  balsamic,  I The  small-leafed  green,  or  sage  of  virtue 

Estimate  of  sorts. — “ The  red  is  the  principal  sort  in  culinary  use,  having 
the  most  agreeable  and  the  fullest  flavor ; the  green  is  next  in  estimation  with 
the  cook  ; but  the  small-leaved  is  generally  preferred  to  those  to  eat  as  a 
raw  herb,  and  for  decoctions ; while  the  broad-leafed,  balsamic  species,  is  the 
most  efficacious  in  a medical  way,  and  is  also  a tea-herb.  However,  any  of 
the  sorts  may  be  occasionally  used  for  these  alternate  purposes. 

Culture. — u They  are  all  propagated  alike,  by  seeds  or  suckers,  and  by 
portions  of  old  roots,  and  grow  well  in  any  soil  not  positively  w'et.  Till 
three  or  four  years  old,  they  have  a healthy  and  agreeable  appearance,  form- 
ing full  and  regular  tufts  ; but,  after  this  period,  they  lose  the  central  branches, 
and  even  become  ragged  and  broken  at  the  edges.  The  treatment  already 
suggested  for  rue  might  be  useful  for  sage.  Under  it,  the  roots  would  proba- 
bly renew'  their  vigor,  and  throw  out  new'  and  healthy  shoots ; but  of  this 
theory  we  have  no  experience.” — Armstrong. 

Use. — u The  leaves  are  used  in  stuffings  and  sauces,  for  many  kinds  of  lus- 
cious and  strong  meats,  as  wrell  as  to  improve  the  flavor  of  various  articles  of 
cookery.  The  decoction  called  sage-tea  is  usually  made  from  one  variety, 
the  small-leaved  green,  or  sage  of  virtue  ; but  any  of  the  others  are  equally 
fit  for  this  purpose.” — Loudon. 


SALSIFY,  or  OYSTER  PLANT. 

Tragopogon  porrifolius . — Salsijis , Fr. 

The  salsify  is  a hardy  biennial,  a native  of  England.  The  root  is  long  and 
tapering,  of  a fleshy  white  substance ; the  herb  smooth,  glaucous,  and  rising 
three  or  four  feet  high.  The  leaves  resemble  those  of  the  leek ; the  flow’ers 
are  of  a dull  purple  color,  closing  soon  after  mid-day  ; the  seed,  as  in  other 
species  of  goat's  beard,  is  remarkable  for  having  attached  to  it  a broad  fea- 
thery crown. 

Culture. — u It  resembles  a small  parsnep  in  its  appearance.  It  is  raised 


100 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


annually  from  seeds,  and  as  easily,  requiring  no  more  care  than  the  carrot 
It  bears  a tolerable  crop. 

Use. — “ In  this  country  it  is  parboiled,  and  then  fried  either  in  batter  or 
without.  It  forms  an  admirable  garnish  for  boiled  fowls  or  turkeys.  In  its 
taste  it  so  strongly  resembles  the  oyster,  that,  when  sliced  and  fried  in  batter, 
it  can  scarcely  be  distinguished  from  it.  If  our  gardeners  would  introduce  it 
into  the  market,  and  our  citizens  once  try  it,  there  would  be  no  danger  of  its 
ever  failing  hereafter  to  be  raised.  It  is  in  eating  from  November  to  May, 
precisely  the  period  in  which  our  vegetable  market  is  most  deficient  in  va* 
riety.” — John  Lowell , Esq.,  in  Mass.  Agr.  Repos. 

“ The  stalks  of  the  tragopogon  may  be  cut  in  the  spring,  when  they  are 
four  or  five  inches  high,  and  dressed  like  asparagus,  in  which  they  eat  very 
tender  and  wrell.” — Rees ’ Cyclopedia . 


SAVORY. 

Satureja. 

Two  species  of  this  plant  are  cultivated — the  winter  and  summer  savory. 

Winter  savory  is  a hardy  under-shrub,  a native  of  the  south  of  France  and 
Italy.  The  shoots  are  furnished  with  two  narrow,  stiff  leaves,  an  inch  long, 
placed  opposite  at  each  joint,  and  from  the  base  of  these  a few  small  leaves 
proceed  in  clusters.  It  produces  whitish  flowers  in  May  and  June. 

Summer  savory  is  a hardy  annual,  a native  of  Italy.  The  branches  are 
slender,  erect,  and  about  a foot  high  ; leaves  opposite,  and  almost  an  inch  in 
length.  It  flowers  in  June  and  July. 

Culture. — Winter  savory  is  a perennial  plant,  and  is  propagated  from  seeds 
or  slips  ; summer  savory,  from  seeds  only.  Both  sorts  will  grow  on  almost 
any  soil,  and  it  is  said  that  the  winter  kind  grows  best  on  barren  soils. 

Use. — u Both  the  summer  and  winter  savory  have  long  been  cultivated  for 
culinary  and  medicinal  purposes.  Their  warm,  aromatic,  pungent  leaves  are 
much  esteemed  in  salads  : formerly,  they  were  employed  medicinally,  with 
a view  to  attenuate  viscid  humors,  to  dispel  flatulency,  and  to  increase  the 
appetite  According  to  Professor  Bradley,  this  herb,  when  dry,  and  put  into 
a bed,  possesses  the  remarkably  property  of  expelling  fleas.” — Dom.  Encvc. 


SEA-KALE. 


101 


SEA-KALE. 

Crarnba  maritima . — Chou  Marin , Fr. — Meerlcolil , Ger. 

The  sea-kale  grows  spontaneously  on  many  parts  of  the  sea-coast  of  Great 
Britain.  The  inhabitants  watch  when  the  shoots  begin  to  push  up  the  sand 
and  gravel,  in  March  and  April,  when  they  cut  off  the  young  shoots  and 
leaf-stocks,  then  blanched  and  tender,  and  boil  them  as  greens. 

Use. — The  young  spring  shoots  and  the  stalks  of  the  unfolding  leaves, 
blanched  by  rising  through  the  natural  ground  in  a wild  state,  or  by  earthing 
up  in  gardens,  are  the  parts  used ; and,  when  boiled,  and  dressed  like  aspa- 
ragus, are  not  inferior  to  that  vegetable.  They  form  also  an  excellent  in- 
gredient in  soups.  Sometimes  the  ribs  of  the  large  leaves  are  peeled  and 
dressed  as  asparagus,  after  the  plant  has  ceased  to  send  up  young  growths. 
By  forcing,  sea-kale  may  be  had  in  perfection  from  November  till  May,  a 
period  including  all  the  dead  months  of  the  year.  It  is  remarked  by  Nicol, 
that  vegetables  are  seldom  improved  by  forcing,  but  that  sea-kale  forms  an 
exception,  the  forced  shoots  produced  at  mid-winter  being  more  crisp  and 
delicate  in  flavor  than  those  procured  in  the  natural  way,  in  April  or  May. 
Sir  George  Mackenzie,  (Caled.  Hort.  M m.  vol.  i,  313.)  observes,  that  sea- 
kale  cannot  easily  be  overdone  in  cooking,  and  that,  after  being  well  boiled, 
it  should  be  thoroughly  drained,  and  then  suffered  to  remain  a few  minutes 
before  the  fire,  that  a further  portion  of  moisture  may  be  exhaled.77 — Loudon. 

John  Lowell,  Esq.,  in  a communication,  published  in  the  Mass.  Jlgr.  Jour- 
nal, says,  “ It  is  very  hardy — grows  in  any  tolerable  soil — is  perennial,  and 
costs  not  half  the  labor  bestowed  on  asparagus.  It  may  be  raised  from  the 
seed  or  from  the  root,  and  fifty  plants,  occupying  a very  small  space,  will 
supply  a single  family.  In  its  taste  it  resembles  the  cauliflower.  The  only 
labor  it  requires,  is,  to  cover  it  with  sand  or  earth,  or  with  pots  or  boxes  in 
March,  so  as  to  exclude  the  light,  and  to  blanch  it,  or  make  it  white.  If  not 
blanched,  it  is  neither  so  beautiful  to  the  eye,  nor  so  tender,  nor  so  delicate  to 
the  taste,  as  if  blanched.  It  should  be  thoroughly  boiled,  and  is  better  if 
boiled  in  milk  and  water.  It  should  be  served  up  like  cauliflowers,  with 
melted  butter.  It  comes  in  at  a season  in  which  our  vegetables  in  this  coun- 
try are  very  deficient.77 

Mr.  Armstrong  says,  i:  In  November,  whether  your  bed  has  been  filled 
with  plants  or  with  seedlings,  be  careful  to  cover  them  with  a thick  coat  of 
well-rotted  dung,  and  so  soon  in  the  spring  or  summer  as  you  find  them  push- 
ing through  this  covering,  put  over  each  a garden-pot  inverted,  having  first 
stopped  the  bottom  holes.  The  signal  for  cutting  is  when  the  plants  have 
arisen  about  three  inches  above  the  surface.77 


102 


AMERICA!?  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


SKIRRET. 

Slum  sisarum. — Cher  vis,  Fr. — Zuckerwurzel , Ger. 

“The  skirret  is  a perennial  tap-rooted  plant,  a native  of  China.  The 
lower  leaves  are  pinnated,  and  the  stem  rises  about  a foot  high,  terminated 
by  an  umbel  of  white  flowers,  in  July  and  August.  The  root  is  composed 
of  fleshy  tubers,  about  the  size  of  the  little  finger,  and  joined  together  at  the 
crown  or  head : they  were  formerly  much  esteemed  in  cookery.  In  the 
north  of  Scotland,  the  plant  is  cultivated  under  the  name  of  crummock. 

“ Culture. — This  plant  grows  freely  in  a lightish  soil,  moderately  good.  It 
.s  propagated  both  from  seed,  and  by  offsets  of  established  roots.  The  bet- 
ter method  is,  to  raise  seedlings,  to  have  the  root  in  perfection,  young  and 
tender. 

“ By  seed. — ‘ Sow  between  the  21st  of  March  and  the  15th  of  April ; a 
fortnight  later,  rather  than  any  earlier,  for  a full  crop,  as  plants  raised  for- 
ward in  spring  are  apt  to  start  for  seed  in  summer.  Sow  on  an  open  com- 
partment of  light  ground,  in  small  drills  eight  inches  apart.  When  the 
plants  are  one  two  inches  high,  thin  them  to  five  or  six  inches  asunder. 
They  will  enlarge  in  growth  till  the  end  of  autumn  ; but  before  the  roots 
are  full  grown,  in  August,  September,  or  October,  some  may  be  taken  up  for 
consumption  as  wanted  : those  left  to  reach  maturity  will  continue  good  for 
use  throughout  winter,  and  in  spring,  till  the  stems  run.’ 

“ By  slips — ‘Having  some  plants  of  last  year’s  raising,  furnished  with 
root-offsets,  slip  them  off ; taking  only  the  young  outward  slips,  and  not 
leaving  any  of  the  larger  old  roots  adhering  to  the  detached  offsets  ; which 
plant  by  dibble,  in  rows  from  six  to  nine  inches  asunder.  They  will  soon 
strike,  and  enlarge,  and  divide  into  offsets ; which,  as  well  as  the  main  roots, 
are  eatable,  and  come  in  for  use  in  proper  season.’ 

“ To  save  seed. — Leave  some  old  plants  in  the  spring ; they  will  shoot  up 
stalks,  and  ripen  seed  in  autumn.” — Loudon. 

“ Use. — The  tubers  are  boiled,  served  up  with  butter,  and  are  declared  by 
Worlidge,  in  1682,  to  be  ‘the  sweetest,  whitest,  and  most  pleasant  of 
roots.’  ” — Loudon.  The  common  skirret  has  an  agreeable  aromatic  flavor, 
and  abounds  with  saccharine  particles : hence  it  has  been  conjectured  that 
sugar  might  be  advantageously  extracted  from  the  root;  and  M.  Margraff 
states,  that  he  obtained  one  ounce  and  a half  of  pure  sugar  from  half  a pound 
of  this  vegetable.  In  a medicinal  view,  it  possesses  diuretic  properties,  and 
is  in  a slight  degree  stimulant. — Dorn.  Encyc. 


SPINACH. 


103 


SPINACH,  or  SPIN  AGE. 

Spinacia  oleracea. — Epinard , Fr, — Spinal,  Ger. 

The  common  spinage  is  an  annual  plant,  but  it  is  not  known  of  what 
country  it  is  a native.  The  leaves  are  large,  the  stems  hollow,  branching, 
and,  when  allowed  to  produce  flowers,  rising  from  two  to  three  feet  high. 
The  male  and  female  flowers  are  produced  on  different  plants  : the  former 
come  in  long  terminal  spikes ; the  latter  in  clusters,  close  to  the  stalk  at 
every  joint. 

Varieties. — Russell’s  Catalogue  contains  the  following : — 


Round-leaved,  or  summer; 

Piickly,  or  fall; 

English  patience  dock,  rumex  patientia, 
( for  early  greens  ;) 


Holland  or  lam  Vs  quarter ; 

New  Zealand,  telragona  expanses,  (a  valua- 
ble new  sort.) 


Times  of  sowing. — “The  round  is  sown  in  April — the  others  from  August 
to  September.  The  prickly  is  sown  in  August  and  September  for  early 
spring  greens.” — RusseWs  Catalogue. 

Soil  and  situation. — As  the  excellence  of  spinaceous  plants  consists  in  the 
succulency  of  the  leaves,  almost  every  thing  depends  on  giving  them  a rich 
soil,  stirring  it  frequently,  and  supplying  water  in  dry  seasons  The  space 
they  occupy  in  the  garden  is  not  considerable,  say  a thirtieth  part : more 
especially  as  some  of  them,  the  common  spinage  for  example,  often  come  in 
as  a temporary  crop  between  rows  of  peas  or  beans,  or  among  cauliflowers, 
broccoli,  &c. 

Seed  and  process  in  sowing. — “ When  raised  by  itself,  spinage  is  generally 
sown  broad-cast,  and  two  ounces  will  sow  abed  four  feet  and  a half  by  thirty 
feet ; but  in  drills,  one  ounce  will  sow  the  same  space.  In  drills  it  is  easier 
to  weed  and  gather:  let  the  drills  be  from  nine  to  twelve  inches  apart. 
Beds  four  feet  wide,  with  small  alleys,  are  convenient  of  access.  Let  the 
ground  be  thoroughly  dug.  Whether  broad-cast  or  in  drills,  sow  thinly,  and 
rake  or  earth  in  about  an  inch  deep. 

Subsequent  culture. — When  the  plants  are  up,  showing  leaves  about  an 
inch  broad,  clear  them  from  weeds,  either  by  hand  or  small  hoeing,  and  thin 
the  plants,  where  crowded  (especially  the  broad-cast  crops),  to  three  inches 
apart;  and,  when  advanced  in  growth,  every  other  may  be  cut  out  for  use, 
increasing  the  distance  to  about  six  inches,  that  the  remainder  may  grow 
stocky,  with  large  spreading  leaves.  The  plants  of  the  early  and  succession 
crops  attain  proper  growth  for  gathering  in  April,  May  and  June.  When 
the  leaves  are  from  two  to  five  inches  in  breadth,  cut  the  plants  clean  out  to 
the  bottom,  or  sometimes  ci  t only  the  largest  leaves.  But  as  soon  as  there 


104 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


is  any  appearance  of  their  running  to  seed,  they  may  he  drawn  out  clean  as 
wanted.” 

To  save  seed. — “To  obtain  seed  of  the  round-leaved,  leave  a sufficient 
quantity  of  established  plants  in  April,  May,  or  June,  to  run  up  in  stalks  ; 
or  transplant  in  autumn  some  of  the  spring-sown  which  have  not  run.  To 
save  seed  of  the  triangular  spinage,  transplant,  in  March,  some  good  strong 
plants,  of  the  winter  crop.  For  large  supplies,  a portion  of  each  may  be 
sown  in  February,  or  the  first  fortnight  of  March,  to  stand  wholly  for  seed- 
ing. Sow  each  sort  separate.  Respecting  both  sides,  observe  that  they  are 
of  the  class  Dicecia , the  male  and  female  flowers  growing  separately,  on  two 
distinct  plants.  When  the  plants  are  flowering  for  seed,  the  cultivator 
should  examine  whether  the  male  plants,  distinguishable  by  the  abundant 
farina  upon  the  blossoms,  stand  crowded  or  numerous  to  excess  ; in  which, 
case  he  should  pull  up  the  superfluous  plants,  leaving  a competency  for  fer- 
tilizing the  female  blossoms,  which  else  would  prove  abortive.  And  when 
the  female  blossoms  are  set,  it  is  best  to  dispose  of  all  the  male  plants, 
drawing  them  by  hand ; which  will  give  more  room  to  the  females  to  grow 
and  perfect  their  seed.  The  plants  rejected  may  be  profitably  given  to 
young  pigs.  The  seed  ripens  in  July  and  August.” — Abercrombie. 

Use. — “ The  leaves  are  used  in  soups,  or  boiled  alone,  and  mashed,  and 
served  up  with  gravies,  butter,  and  hard-boiled  eggs.  The  leaves  may  be 
obtained  from  sowings  in  the  open  ground  at  most  seasons  of  the  year,  but 
chiefly  in  spring,  when  they  are  largest  and  most  succulent.” — Loudon. 
“ According  to  the  opinion  of  French  physicians,  this  plant  is  not  only  food, 
but  physic,  and  is  hence  emphatically  called  4 Le  balai  de  Vestomar? — the 
broom  of  the  stomach — sweeping  and  deterging  every  hole  and  corner  of 
that  organ,  without  giving  pain,  or  in  any  degree  interrupting  the  ordinary 
avocations  of  the  persons  employing  it.”— Armstrong. 


CucurUta  melo  pepo. — Courge  ou  Potiron , Frv 

The  squash  is  a species  of  the  cucurbita , and  seems  to  be  the  link  which 
connects  the  melon  and  pumpkin. 

44  The  varieties  mentioned  in  Russell’s  Catalogue  are— 


SQUASH. 


Early  bush  summer  ; 

Long  crook-neck,  or  bell ; 
Vegetable  marrow  j 
Acorn ; 


Commodore  Valparaiso,  {grows  large,  and 
is  highly  esteemed  ;) 


Canada  crook-neck  ; {small,  and  of  supe- 
rior quality. ) 


STRAWBERRY. 


105 


t{  Squashes,  of  every  kind,  may  be  cultivated  as  directed  for  cucumbers  and 
melons — should  be  sown  at  the  same  time,  and  at  similar  distances,  with 
this  difference,  that  two  plants  of  these  will  be  plenty  for  each  hill,  and 
that  they  are  easier  pleased  with  soil  and  preparation  than  the  others.’7 — 
M' Mahon. 

Use. — The  squash  is  applicable  to  all  the  uses  of  the  pumpkin,  and,  for 
many  purposes,  is  superior  to  that  vegetable. 


STRAWBERRY. 

Fragaria . — Fraisier , Fr. — Erdbeerpflanze , Ger. 

The  substance  of  the  following  article  was  'written  for  this  work,  at  the 
particular  request  of  its  compiler,  by  a gentleman  of  Boston,  whose  success, 
as  a practical,  is  equal  to  his  skill  as  a scientific  horticulturist ; and  whose 
liberality  in  imparting  his  knowledge,  as  well  as  the  results  of  its  successful 
application  in  introducing  excellent  varieties  of  fruits,  merits  the  thanks  of  the 
community. 

Varieties. — Every  year  is  producing  new  varieties  of  this  as  well  as  almost 
all  other  fruits,  from  the  care  and  attention  which  are  bestowed  on  them  by 
the  scientific  cultivators  of  Europe,  among  whom,  at  the  present  day,  Mr. 
Knight,  the  president  of  the  London  Horticultural  Society,  seems  to  take  the 
lead. 

Society  owes  much  to  these  gentlemen,  and  they  are  constantly  receiving 
the  reward  of  their  labors  from  the  many  and  continued  testimonies  of  appro- 
bation, which  their  success  calls  forth.  But  their  chief  gratification  is  de- 
rived from  the  pursuit  itself,  which,  above  all  others,  is  calculated  to  soothe 
and  tranquillize  fhe  mind,  and  to  lead  men  to  w look  through  Nature  up  to 
Nature’s  God.” 

The  kind  most  esteemed  in  England  are  the  pine,  imperial,  Bostock,  Su- 
rinam, Bath  scarlet,  Downton,  roseberry,  Hudson  Bay,  large  scarlet,  musk 
hautbois,  round  hautbois,  and  flat  hautbois. 

In  France,  . the  Bath  scarlet  is  of  long  standing,  and  much  esteemed.  The 
white,  the  Alpine,  or  monthly,  and  the  Chili,  are  also  favorites. 

The  Chili  is  a shy  bearer,  but  very  large  when  it  comes  to  maturity — is 
not,  I believe,  known  here  : it  stands  on  a stiff,  upright,  and  strong  stem,  in 
lieu  of  a pendulous  one,  like  the  Hudson. 

The  Downton  is,  however,  I believe,  a larger  strawberry,  and  is  uncom- 
monly high  flavored.  There  are  other  new  varieties  very  large,  of  which  I 
know  nothing.  The  form  of  the  Downton  is  various;  many  of  them  are 
shaped  like  a cock’s  comb,  which  name  it  has  obtained  in  some  horticultural 

5* 


I 


106 


AMERICAN  KltCHEN  GARDENER. 


works.  It  was  raised  from  seed  by  Mr.  Knight,  at  Downton,  the  name  of 
his  estate,  and  is  a very  good  bearer. 

The  roscberry  is,  in  point  of  flavor,  surpassed  by  no  cultivated  strawberry 
I have  seen.  It  resembles,  in  form  and  flavor,  the  Alpine,  but  is  a better 
bearer.  This  last, 

The  Alpine,  is  a monthly  strawberry  ; it  continues  in  bearing  from  June 
until  October  in  this  climate — is  like  the  wood-strawberry  in  form  and  flavor, 
but  is  a shy  bearer. 

The  scarlets  are  all  large  and  fine  fruit ; the  largest  variety  are  fine  flavored 
and  very  early.  They  are  not  very  great  bearers,  but  should  be  cultivated 
as  valuable  varieties,  as  well  as  for  their  beauty  and  excellent  qualities. 

The  haulbois  is  the  favorite  English  strawberry.  It  is  totally  different 
from  what  is  commonly  called  the  hautbois  in  this  country.  The  flat  haut- 
bois  grows  generally  on  the  top  of  the  vines — is  brown,  and  greenish  white 
when  ripe — fine  flavored,  pretty  good  bearer,  but  difficult  to  detach  from  its 
stalk. 

The  round  hautbois  is  of  a dark  purple  when  ripe — is  somewhat  in  form 
like  the  common  red  strawberry,  but  larger ; and  the 

Musk  haulbois  is  like  the  preceding — a shy  bearer,  but  very  delicious. 

The  wood- strawberry  is  far  before  any  other  in  point  of  flavor,  and,  if  trans- 
planted into  gardens,  may  for  two  or  three  years  answer  very  well  ; and  if 
not  too  highly  manured,  preserve  their  flavor  and  increase  their  size.  But 
new  plants  must  be  obtained,  every  two  or  three  years,  from  the  woods,  to 
make  new  plantations,  or  they  will  degenerate. 

Soil  and  manure. — The  soil  proper  for  this  last  mentioned  variety,  as  well 
as  all  others,  is  light,  warm,  and  gravelly ; and  the  manure  to  be  applied 
should  be  exclusively  vegetable,  and  not  animal  manure.  The  usual  practice 
is  to  manure  the  ground  with  rotten  dung,  with  a view  to  increase  the  size 
and  quantity  of  fruit ; but,  in  doing  this,  the  flavor  of  the  fruit  is  destroyed 
in  proportion  to  the  richness  of  the  soil.  Besides,  high  manuring  produces 
strong  vines  and  little  fruit.  Rotten  leaves,  decayed  wood,  ashes,  in  small 
quantity,  mixed  with  other  vegetable  substances  in  a compost  heap,  will 
make  better  manure  for  strawberries  than  any  animal  substance  whatever. 
As  the  vines  which  bear  this  fruit  require  great  moisture  to  bring  the  fruit 
to  its  proper  size,  the  soil  and  situation  in  which  they  are  placed  must  not  be 
too  dry. 

Propagation. — The  usual  time  for  transplanting  strawberry-plants  is  Au- 
gust. That  time  is  chosen  because  they  have  then  done  bearing,  and  have 
made  offsets,  if  the  season  has  been  favorable,  of  strong  plants,  set  from  their 
runners.  Plantations  made  at  this  season  will  bear  some  fruit  the  next  sum- 
mer. But.  if  you  can  get  good  vigorous  plants  in  May  of  the  preceding  sea- 
son, I prefer  to  plant  then,  as  it  saves  a year,  nearly,  the  plants  being  ready 
to  bear  abundantly  the  next  year. 


STRAWBERRY. 


107 


Gardeners  have  different  habits  and  opinions  as  to  trimming  the  plants 
when  they  are  put  out.  Some  cut  off  all  the  old  leaves,  and  preserve  only 
the  naissant  leaves  in  the  center  of  the  plant.  Others  take  off  the  dead  or 
decayed  leaves  only,  and  plant  with  all  the  old  healthy  leaves  on  the  plant. 
This  last  plan  is  highly  recommended  by  the  Abbe  Rozier,  but,  so  far  as  my 
experience  goes,  I have  found  the  first  mentioned  course  best.  Many  people 
cut  the  roots  in  before  they  put  them  into  the  ground:  all  dead  substances 
should  be  cut  off,  but  not  the  roots.  When  the  plants  are  put  out,  they  should 
be  kept  free  from  weeds,  and  the  ground  shqritild  be  kept  loose  about  them. 
If  the  plants  are  strong,  put  but  one  to  form  the  stools ; if  weak,  put  two. 

As  regards  the  distance  at  which  plants  should  be  set,  cultivators  differ. 
The  common  red  strawberry,  which  is  found  in  all  our  gardens,  may  be  put 
eight  inches  apart  in  rows  nir.e  inches  or  a foot  from  each  other,  and  allowed 
to  form  a matted  bed  of  eighteen  inches  or  two  feet  wide,  with  a foot-path 
of  a foot  wide  between  them.  But  the  larger  and  finer  sorts  should  be 
planted  in  stools  in  beds  four  and  a half  feet  wide,  with  a path  of  fifteen  inches 
or  more  between  the  beds.  In  these  beds  the  plants  should  be  set,  by  a line, 
fifteen  to  eighteen  inches  apart,  both  ways,  taking  care  to  set  them  in  quin- 
cuncial  order,  and  to  keep  them  from  running  together. 

The  objection  generally  made  to  this  mode  of  cultivation  is,  that  the  fruit 
is  exposed  to  be  injured  by  lying  on  the  ground,  where  it  is  bruised  and  cov- 
ered with  dirt  every  time  it  rains.  This,  however,  may  be  prevented  by  a 
little  care.  In  some  parts  of  Europe,  where  moss  is  plenty,  it  is  collected 
and  put  round  the  stools,  so  as  to  prevent  the  fruit  from  lying  on  the  groundf 
and  at  the  same  time  to  prevent  the  moisture  round  the  plant  from  evapo- 
rating. 

In  some  places,  where  moss  is  not  to  be  got,  straw  is  used  for  the  same 
purpose  ; hence  the  English  name  of  strawberry.*  But  I think  that  leaves 
of  trees  that  have  been  collected  in  the  spring,  and  kept  under  cover,  are  bet- 
ter than  either,  and  particularly  the  oak-leaf ; because,  when  they  are  no 
longer  wanted  to  protect  the  fruit,  and  keep  the  moisture  in  the  ground,  they 
can  be  dug  in  round  the  stools,  where  they  serve  as  most  excellent  manure 
for  this  delicious  fruit. 

The  strawberry  may  also  be  propagated  by  seed.  Knight,  in  making  ex- 
periments, with  a view  of  ascertaining  whether  most  of  the  sorts  would  not 
breed  together  indiscriminately,  raised  above  four  hundred  varieties,  “some 
very  bad,  but  the  greater  part  tolerably  good,  and  a few  very  excellent.” 
The  fruit  of  above  a dozen  sorts  was  sent  to  the  Horticultural  Society  [in 
London]  in  August,  1818,  and  found  of  various  degrees  of  excellence.  The 
seeds,  if  sown  immediately  after  gathering,  will  produce  plants  which  will 
come  into  bearing  the  following  year. — Lcmdon. 

* This  name  is  common  in  all  the  northern  countries,  while  in  France,  and  countries 
south,  it  is  said  they  take  their  name  from  their  flavor,  or  the  botanical  name  fragaria. 


108 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


11  Use. — The  fruit  is  fragrant,  (whence  fragaria,)  delicious,  and  universally 
esteemed.  It  consists  almost  entirely  of  matter  soluble  in  the  stomach,  and 
neither  there  nor  when  laid  in  heaps,  and  left  to  rot,  does  it  undergo  the  ace- 
tous fermentation.  Hence  it  is  very  nourishing,  and  may  be  safely  eaten  by 
gouty  and  rheumatic  persons.  1 In  addition  to  its  grateful  flavor,  the  subacid 
juice  has  a cooling  quality,  particularly  acceptable  in  summer.  Eaten  either 
alone,  or  with  sugar  and  cream,  there  are  few  constitutions  with  which 
strawberries,  even  when  taken  in  large  quantities,  are  found  to  disagree. 
Further,  they  have  properties  Which  render  them,  in  most  conditions  of  the 
animal  frame,  positively  salutary ; and  physicians  concur  in  placing  them  in 
their  small  catalogue  of  pleasant  remedies.  They  dissolve  the  tartareous 
incrustations  of  the  teeth.  They  promote  perspiration.  Persons  afflicted 
with  the  gout  have  found  relief  from  using  them  very  largely ; so  have  pa- 
tients in  cases  of  the  stone ; and  Hoffman  states,  that  he  has  known  con- 
sumptive people  cured  by  them.  The  bark  of  the  root  is  astringent.* — Aber- 
crombie. ** — Loudon. 


SUNFLOWER. 

Helianthus  annuiis. 

This  plant  is  a native  of  South  America,  but  naturalized  and  become  com- 
mon in  the  United  States.  It  is  easily  propagated  in  any  common  soil,  either 
by  sowing  the  seeds,  or  by  slips  or  offsets  from  the  roots. 

From  a paper  on  the  subject  of  sunflower-oil,  in  the  first  vol.  of  Trans. 
Amer.  Phil.  Society , it  appears  that  one  bushel  of  seed  yields  three  quarts  of 
oil,  and  that  this  quantity  of  seed  is  produced  from  one  hundred  plants,  set 
about  three  feet  apart,  in  the  same  manner  that  Indian  corn  is  planted.  The 
oil  is  thin,  clear,  and  of  an  agreeable  taste. 

The  process  for  expressing  the  oil  is  the  same  as  that  of  making  linseed- 
oil. 


TANSY. 

Tanacetum  Vulgar e. — Tanaise , Fr. — Rlieinfarn , Ger. 

Tansy  is  a perennial  plant,  which  grows  without  cultivation  in  Great 
Britain  and  in  some  parts  of  the  United  States. 

Culture. — Tansy  may  be  propagated  in  spring  or  autumn  by  rooted  slips, 
or  by  dividing  the  roots  into  several  sets.  Plant  them  in  any  compartment 


THYME. 


109 


of  the  kitchen  or  physic  garden,  from  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  asunder. 
The  plant  continues  for  several  years,  producing  abundant  tufts  of  leaves  an- 
nually. As  they  run  up  in  strong  stalks  in  summer,  these  should  be  cut 
down  to  encourage  a production  of  young  leaves  below  on  the  stem.  To 
have  young  tansy  in  winter,  plant  some  roots  either  in  a hot-bed  or  in  pots 
placed  therein,  or  in  a pinery  or  forcing  house,  at  any  time  from  November 
to  March. — Abercrombie. 

Use. — 4£  The  young  leaves  are  shredded  down,  and  employed  to  give  color 
and  flavor  to  puddings ; they  are  also  used  in  omelets  and  other  cakes,  and 
were  formerly  in  much  repute  as  a vermifuge.” — Loudon. 


TARRAGON. 

Artemisia  Dracunculus . — L’Estragm , Fr. — Dragun , Ger. 

Culture. — This  is  a perennial  plant,  which  may  be  propagated  from  seed, 
or  from  slips  or  offsets,  in  the  same  manner  that  tansy,  mint,  &c.,  are  culti- 
vated. 

Use. — u Tarragon  is  frequently  used  in  salads,  especially  by  the  French, 
to  correct  the  coldness  of  other  herbs.  The  leaves  make  an  excellent  pickle ; 
they  have  a fragrant  smell  and  aromatic  taste.  The  use  of  them  in  Persia 
has  ever  been  general,  at  meals,  to  create  an  appetite.  The  famous  vinegar 
of  Maille,  in  France,  owes  its  superior  flavor  to  this  plant,  which  is  now 
common  in  Pennsylvania.” — Dr.  Mease. 


THYME. 

Thymus  Vulgaris . — Thym , Fr. — Thimian , Ger. 

There  are,  according  to  Loudon,  two  species  of  thyme  cultivated  for  culi- 
nary purposes — the  common  and  the  lemon  thyme. 

Common  or  garden  thyme  is  a native  of  Spain  and  Italy.  Of  this  there  are 
two  varieties,  the  broad  and  the  narrow-leaved,  besides  the  variegated, 
grown  for  ornament. 

Lemon  thyme — T.  citriodorus — is  a very  low  evergreen  shrub,  trailing  and 
seldom  rising  above  four  or  six  inches  in  height.  It  is  distinguished  by  its 
strong  smell  of  lemon. 

Culture. — The  plant  is  best  raised  from  seed.  Sow  as  early  in  the  spring 
as  the  season  will  permit,  in  a bed  or  border  of  light,  fine  earth,  either  broad- 


110 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


cast,  scattered  thin,  and  raked  in  lightly,  or  in  small,  shallow  drills,  six 
inches  asunder.  The  after-culture  is  simple,  and  similar  to  that  of  other 
sweet  herbs,  such  as  marjoram,  sage,  &c.  u In  soils  which  are  cold,  stiff  or 
moist,  it  does  not  thrive  ; its  branches  become  ragged,  its  leaves  few,  and  its 
flowers,  and  their  peculiar  aroma,  feeble  and  faded.55 — Armstrong. 

Use. — “ The  young  leaves  and  tops  are  used  in  soups,  stuffings,  and  sauces. 
For  these  purposes,  the  broad-leaved  common  is  generally  preferred  ; but  the 
flavor  of  the  yellow  is  much  liked  in  peculiar  dishes.55 — Loudon.  4£  All  the 
parts  of  this  plant,  but  particularly  the  calyx  of  its  flower,  yields  an  essen- 
tial oil,  yellow  and  odorous,  and  highly  charged  with  camphor.  In  the 
kitchen,  it  is  used  as  an  ingredient  in  sauces  and  stuffings,  and  in  what  are 
technically  called  forced  meats ,55 — Armstrong. 


TOMATO. 

Solarium  Ly coper sicum — Tomate , Fr. — Licbes  Apfil , Ger. 

u This  plant  is  of  the  same  family  with  the  potato,  and,  like  it,  is  a native 
of  Southern  America.  It  has  several  species,  two  of  which  fall  under  our 
notice  as  garden  vegetables,  and  are  distinguished  from  each  other  only  by  a 
difference  of  size.  The  smaller  is  held  to  be  the  parent  plant,  and  has  the 
advantage  of  ripening  sooner,  and  better  resisting  cold  weather.  To  have  an 
early  crop,  sow  the  seeds  in  a dry  and  warm  soil,  and  sheltered  situation,  in 
October,  and  cover  the  bed  with  straw  or  stable-litter  during  the  winter. 
For  summer  and  fall  use,  sow  again  in  May,  and  water  freely.  If  the  soil 
and  situation  be  favorable,  and  the  culture  proper,  the  product  will  be  great 
The  distance  between  the  plants  should  not  be  less  than  two  feet.55 — Arm- 
strong. 

Use. — “ When  ripe,  the  fruit,  which  has  an  acid  flavor,  is  put  into  soups 
and  sauces,  and  the  juice  is  preserved  for  winter  use,  like  ketchup  ; it  is  also 
used  in  confectionery  as  a preserve,  and,  when  green,  as  a pickle.  Though 
a good  deal  used  in  England  in  soups,  and  as  a principal  ingredient  in  a 
well-known  sauce  for  mutton,  yet  our  estimation  and  uses  of  the  fruit  are 
nothing  to  those  of  the  French  and  Italians,  and  especially  the  latter.  Near 
Rome  and  Naples,  whole  fields  are  covered  with  it;  and  scarcely  a dinner 
is  served  up,  in  which  it  does  not,  in  some  way  or  other,  form  a part.55 — 
Loudon. 


TURNIP. 


Ill 


TURNIP. 


Brcissica  Rapa. — -Navel , Fr. — Stechrnbe , Ger. 

Russell’s  Catalogue  contains  the  following  varieties: — 


Early  white  Dutch, 
Early  garden  stone, 
White  flat,  or  globe, 
Green  round, 

Red  round, 

Swan’s  egg, 

Large  English  Norfolk, 


Long  yellow  French, 

Yellow  Dutch, 

Yellow  Maltese, 

Yellow  Aberdeen, 

Yellow  stone, 

Yellow  Swedish,  Russia,  or  ruta  baga, 
Dedham. 


Long  tankard,  or  Hanover, 

The  first  three  sorts  are  fittest  for  early,  first  succession,  and  main  crops. 
The  French  turnip,  according  to  Loudon,  is  of  excellent  llavor,  and  is  in 
high  repute  in  France,  Germany,  and  Holland.  The  Swedish,  for  its  large 
size  and  hardy  nature,  is  extensively  cultivated  in  fields  for  cattle  ; it  is  also 
occasionally  raised  in  gardens  for  the  table,  to  use  in  winter  and  spring. 

Seed  estimate. — For  a seed-bed  four  feet  and  a half  by  twenty-four,  the 
plants  to  remain  and  be  thinned  to  seven  inches’  distance,  half  an  ounce. 

Time  of  sowing — Make  first  a small  sowing  of  some  of  the  early  sorts  in 
the  last  fortnight  of  March  or  the  first  days  of  April,  for  turnips  in  May  and 
June;  but,  as  these  will  run  to  seed  the  same  season,  make  a larger  sowing 
about  the  middle  of  April.  The  first  considerable  sowing  may  be  about  the 
middle  or  towards  the  end  of  May,  for  roots  to  draw  young  about  the  end  of 
June,  and  in  full  growth  in  July  and  August.  The  principal  sowing  should 
be  about  the  middle  of  July.  “Doing  it  on  a set  day  is  ridiculous ; for  a 
time  should  be  chosen  when  the  ground  has  the  right  degree  of  moisture  to 
make  the  seed  vegetate  ; and  if  this  should  happen  a week  earlier  or  a fort- 
night later  than  the  usual  time,  it  need  not  be  regretted  ; but  the  opportu- 
nity ought  to  be  embraced.” — Abercrombie.  They  may  be  sown  to  advan- 
tage in  New  England  as  late  as  the  first  week  in  August ; and  those  which 
are  put  into  the  ground  so  late  will  be  less  liable  to  be  injured  by  insects 
than  when  sown  earlier. 

Soil  and  situation. — Sand  or  gravel,  with  a mixture  of  loam,  produce  the 
sweetest  and  best  flavored  roots.  It  should  be  made  fine,  but  not  too  rich, 
lest  the  turnips  be  rank  and  ill  tasted.  Ground  which  has  been  newly 
cleared  from  the  forest  yields  the  largest  and  swreetest  roots,  and  on  such 
spots  there  is  least  danger  from  insects.  u Next  to  new  land,  swarded 
ground  is  to  be  chosen  for  a crop  of  turnips  ; and  the  way  to  prepare  it  is,  to 
plow  it  pretty  deep  in  the  spring,  and  fold  it  by  turning  in  the  stock  for  a 


112 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


good  number  of  nights ; for  there  is  scarcely  any  of  our  fields  sufficiently  rich 
to  produce  turnips  without  manuring ; and  folding  hitherto  appears  to  be 
the  best  method  of  enriching  the  ground  for  this  purpose.  It  should  be  well 
harrowed,  as  often  as  once  a week,  while  the  folding  is  continued,  to  mix  the 
excrements  of  the  cattle  with  the  soil.77 — Deane. 

Process  in  sowing , and  precautions  against  the  fly. — u Let  the  ground  be 
well  broken  by  regular  digging,  and  neatly  leveled  to  receive  the  seed. 
Procure  bright,  well  dried  seed.  At  a season  when  the  turnip-fly  is  not  ap- 
prehended, the  seed  may  be  put  into  the  ground  without  any  preparation, 
either  alone  or  mixed  with  a little  sand  ; but  in  the  hot  weather  of  summer, 
it  is  advisable  to  use  some  cheap  and  effectual  preventive  of  the  fly.  It  ap- 
pears from  a trial  of  Knight,  at  the  suggestion  of  Sir  Humphrey  Davy,  that 
lime  slaked  with  urine,  and  mixed  with  a treble  quantity  of  soot,  if  sprinkled 
in  with  the  seed  at  the  time  of  sowing,  will  protect  the  seeds  and  germs 
from  the  ravages  of  this  pernicious  insect ; but  this  antidote  cannot  be  con- 
veniently applied  unless  the  sowing  be  in  drills.  A yet  simpler  remedy, 
found  by  Mean  to  be  perfectly  successful,  is,  to  steep  the  seed  in  sulphur- 
water,  putting  an  ounce  of  sulphur  to  a pint  of  water,  which  will  be  suffi- 
cient for  soaking  about  three  pounds  of  seed.77 — Abercrombie. 

The  method  of  sowing  is  either  broad-cast  or  in  drills.  In  the  former 
mode,  Abercrombie  directs  to  allow7  half  an  ounce  of  seed  for  every  one  hun- 
dred square  feet.  Deane  says,  the  quantity  of  seed  for  an  acre  is  never  less 
than  one  pound— more  frequently  a pound  and  a half,  and  sometimes  twTo. 
In  sowing  by  broad-cast,  the  seed  may  be  covered  by  drawing  a ki  light  har- 
row backward,  that  is,  wrong  end  foremost,  to  prevent  the  tines,  which  are 
generally  set  somewhat  pointed  forward,  from  tearing  up  the  sods,  and  bury- 
ing the  seed  too  deep.77  If  sowed  in  rows,  the  drills  may  be  an  inch  deep, 
and  twelve  or  fifteen  inches  asunder. 

Subsequent  culture. — As  soon  as  the  plants  have  rough  leaves,  about  an 
inch  broad,  hoe  and  thin  them  to  six  or  eight  inches7  distance,  cutting  up  all 
weeds.  As  the  turnips  increase  in  the  root,  a part  may  be  drawm  young,  by 
progressive  thinnings,  so  as  to  leave  those  designed  to  reach  a full  size  ulti- 
mately ten  or  twelve  inches  apart. 

Taking  and  preserving  the  crop. — In  England  they  feed  the  turnips  off  the 
ground  with  sheep,  or  draw  them  up  for  neat  cattle,  through  the  winter,  as 
they  are  wanted  ; but,  in  this  country,  they  must  be  harvested  in  autumn, 
about  the  end  of  October,  or  even  earlier  in  some  seasons  and  places,  and 
stored  and  saved,  as  directed  for  preserving  other  roots.  See  page  24. 

To  save  seed. — “ Some  of  the  best  roots  of  the  middling  size  should  be 
planted  early  in  the  spring,  in  a good  spot,  free  from  shade.  They  should  be 
in  rows,  eighteen  inches  asunder,  and  the  ground  must  be  kept  clear  of  w^eeds 
till  the  seed  is  ripe.  Stakes  and  laths  may  be  needful  round  the  outside,  to 
Keep  the  branches  from  falling  to  the  ground  before  the  seed  is  fully  ripe.77 


C A LEND  A RIAL  INDEX. 


113 


— Deane.  “ It  is  preferable,  however,  to  procure  turnip-seed,  as  indeed  that 
of  most  other  vegetables,  from  the  regular  seedsmen  ; as  the  seed  farmers 
have  opportunities  of  keeping  the  sorts  distinct,  which  cannot  be  within  the 
precincts  of  a walled  garden.” — Loudon. 

Use. — The  common  culinary  uses  of  the  turnip,  boiled,  mashed,  &c.,  are 
too  well  known  to  need  any  notice.  We  shall  mention  some  uses  not  so 
common. 

“ For  feeding  horses. — These,  when  fed  on  turnips,  are  induced  to  eat  the 
barn-chaff,  and  other  dry  food,  with  a good  appetite — are  kept  healthy,  and 
will  work  without  corn. 

“ For  feeding  cows. — To  make  sweet  and  well-tasted  butter  from  the  milk 
of  cows  fed  on  turnips,  let  the  milk  vessels  be  kept  constantly  clean  and  well 
scalded  with  boiling  water,  before  using.  When  the  milk  is  brought  into 
the  dairy,  to  every  eight  quarts  mix  one  quart  of  boiling  water;  then  put  up 
the  milk  into  the  bowl  to  stand  for  cream. 

u As  a substitute  for  bread. — When  the  dearness  of  all  sorts  of  corn  occa- 
sioned many  poor  people  in  Essex  [England]  to  make  bread  of  turnips,  they 
took  the  peeled  roots  and  boiled  them  in  water  till  they  were  soft ; then, 
strongly  pressing  out  their  juices,  they  mixed  them  with  their  wreight  of 
wheat- meal ; and  adding  salt,  yeast,  and  warm  water,  they  kneaded  it  up  as 
other  paste  ; which,  having  lain  a little  while  to  ferment,  they  ordered  and 
baked  as  common  bread.” — Gleanings  in  Husbandry. 


114 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


CALENDARIAL  INDEX. 


The  object  of  this  Calendar  is  little  more  than  to  give  brief  intimations  of 
work  to  be  performed  in  a garden,  together  with  some  approximation  to  the 
time  of  year  in  which  it  should  be  accomplished.  The  figures  refer  to  the 
pages  in  which  further  directions  may  be  found  relative  to  the  operations 
adverted  to.  These  directions  are  intended  for  the  New  England  States,  or 
about  the  latitude  42°  N.  and  the  vicinity,  or  a small  elevation  above  the 
sea. 

Allowance  should  be  made  for  elevation  of  site,  as  well  as  for  situation 
north  or  south  of  that  degree.  But  it  is  not  possible,  perhaps,  to  state  what 
that  allowance  should  be  with  any  approach  to  precision.  The  nature  of 
the  soil,  the  aspect,  the  exposure,  the  forwardness  or  backwardness,  or  what 
may  be  styled  the  general  character  of  the  season,  are  all  to  be  regarded ; 
and  require  the  exercise  of  a sound  discretion  in  the  cultivator,  not  to  be  re- 
stricted by  general  rules,  which  are  liable  to  too  many  exceptions  to  be 
noted  in  this  work. 

JANUARY. 

Throughout  New  England  the  temperature  of  the  climate  is  such  as  to 
exclude  the  cultivator  from  performing  most  of  the  operations  of  tillage  or 
horticulture  from  about  the  first  of  December  to  the  latter  part  of  March,  or 
the  beginning  of  April.  The  seeds  of  knowledge  may,  however,  be  sown 
in  winter,  and  the  horticulturist  may  cultivate  his  mind  when  his  soil  is 
bound  in  frozen  fetters. 

Provide  a sufficient  quantity  of  bean-poles,  and  pea- rods,  which  you  may 
preserve  in  a corner  of  your  wood-house,  or  other  place  suitable  for  your 
purpose.  Many  people,  who  neglect  to  procure  these  implements  in  season, 
are  induced,  by  the  hurry  of  business,  to  permit  their  peas  and  beans  to  trail 
on  the  ground,  in  which  situation  they  will  not  produce,  especially  the  tall 
growing  sorts,  one  third  part  so  many  as  if  they  were  properly  supported 
by  poles  and  rods.  The  length  of  the  pea  rods  should  be  in  proportion  to 
the  sorts  of  peas  for  which  you  intend  them,  83.  The  same  kinds  of  rods, 
which  the  tall-growing  peas  require,  will  answer  for  the  generality  of  run- 
ning kidney  beans.  The  Lima  beans  will  need  strong  poles,  from  eight  to 
nine  feet  high.  You  may  now  make  preparation  for  forcing  cucumbers  and 
melons,  50,  66. 

FEBRUARY. 

Manure  may  be  carried  into  those  places  where  it  is  needed,  left  m a 
heap,  but  not  spread.  Wherever  and  whenever  the  snow  is  off  the  ground, 
rake  together  and  burn  the  haulm,  or  whatever  may  remain  from  the  last 
year’s  crop.  Fences  should  be  inspected  and  repaired,  and  seeds  rubbed  out 
and  cleaned.  Straw  mats  for  the  hot-beds,  pales,  rails,  lattices,  or  trellises 
fo’  espalier  trees,  should  be  got  in  readiness.  See  that  your  garden 


CALENDARIAL  INDEX, 


115 


tools  are  in  good  repair,  and  procure  such  new  ones  as  may  be  necessary. 
It  is  now  time  to  set  about  procuring  and  preparing  materials  for,  and  form- 
ing hot-beds.  Clean  trees  from  moss,  and  protect  them  against  mice 
and  rabbits  by  whitewashing  with  lime,  or  smearing  with  some  composi- 
tion which  is  offensive  to  those  vermin.  Enter  in  earnest  into  the  business 
of  forwarding  various  kinds  of  seedling  plants,  by  artificial  means,  so  that 
they  can  have  strong  roots,  and  arrive  at  some  size  by  the  time  they  would 
naturally  make  their  first  appearance  above  ground.  This  may  well  be 
done  by  adopting  Mr.  Armstrong’s  method  with  regard  to  melons,  G4.  At- 
tend to  your  fruit  in  your  fruit-room  or  cellar,  on  shelves  or  in  boxes,  and,  if 
necessary,  pick  it  over,  and  cull  out  whatever  is  defective;  wipe  the  re- 
mainder dry,  and  pack  it  away  anew.  But  if  it  is  put  down  in  some  sort  of 
grain,  dry  sand,  flax-seed  chaff,  or,  what  is  probably  best  of  all.  pulverized 
plaster  of  Paris,  you  will  not  need  to  meddle  with  it.  You  may  now,  per- 
haps, begin  to  force  asparagus  in  hot-beds,  14.  Sow  under  glass  cases,  for 
transplanting  or  otherwise,  radishes,  carrots,  small  salads,  peas,  beans,  &c. 
Protect  choice  plants,  which  may  showr  a disposition  to  vegetate,  by  matting, 
litter,  cases  of  wicker,  old  bark,  and  other  proper  means. 

MARCH. 

Lettuce  may  be  sowed  in  the  open  ground  as  soon  as  frost  will  permit, 
62.  It  may  be  sowed  between  vacant  rows,  intended  for  other  plants,  and 
pulled  out  for  use  before  the  other  plants  are  large  enough  to  be  encumbered 
by  it.  Early  peas  cannot  be  planted  too  soon  after  the  ground  is  thawed, 
82.  Radishes  may  be  sowed  as  soon  as  the  seed  can  be  raked  in.  Sow 
cabbages,  cucumbers,  melons,  cauliflowers,  squashes,  &c.  in  hot-beds,  under 
glasses,  &c.,  49,  61,  104.  Dig  up  vacant  ground,  applying  manure.  Dress 
borders,  and  clip  edgings  of  box.  Clean,  relay,  or  make  new  gravel  walks. 
Attend  to,  and  turn  over  compost  beds.  Dress  asparagus  beds,  or  make  new 
ones  the  latter  part  of  this  month  or  the  beginning  of  April,  14.  Select  from 
your  cellar  the  best  cabbages  with  heads,  and  set  them  in  some  proper  place 
to  stand  for  seed.  Set  the  different  kinds  remote  from  each  other,  to  pre- 
vent their  mixing  at  the  time  of  blossoming.  Likewise,  set  some  of  your 
best  cabbage  stumps  for  early  salad  and  greens.  If  the  ground  is  moist,  set 
shallow  ; if  dry,  place  them  about  six  inches  deep.  Small  salading,  such  as 
cresses,  48,  mustard,  70,  71,  radish,  95,  &c.,  when  a constant  supply  is 
wanted,  should  be  sown  once  a week  or  fortnight.  Celery  for  an  early  crop 
may  be  sown  in  this  month,  though  the  principal  sowing  had  better  be 
deferred  till  April,  43.  Artichokes  should  be  sowed  as  early  as  the  season 
will  permit,  12,  and  horse-radish. 

APRIL. 

In  the  Eastern  States  generally,  and  in  those  parts  of  the  Middle  States 
where  the  ground  is  naturally  somewhat  moist  and  heavy,  this  is  the  month 
for  sowing  the  principal  garden  crops.  Sow  the  hardy  kinds  as  soil,  site  and 
season  will  permit,  that  the  plants  may  be  firmly  established  before  they 
are  overtaken  by  the  heat  and  drought  of  summer.  But  a stiff  and  moist 
soil  should  never,  on  any  account,  be  dug,  plowed  or  harrowed  when  it  is  so 
wet  as  to  be  clammy  and  adhesive.  On  the  other  hand,  a light,  sandy  soil 
will  be  meliorated  by  being  hoed,  or  otherwise  wrought  on  while  moist. 


116 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


“ Earth  of  a consistence  that  will  hold  water  longest  without  becoming  hard 
ivhen  dry.  is  that  of  all  others  the  best  adapted  for  raising  the  generality  of 
plants  in  the  greatest  perfection.  The  great  art  of  improving  sandy  and  clay 
soils  is  to  give  to  the  former  such  dressings  of  clay,  cow-dung,  and  other 
kinds  of  manure,  as  will  have  a tendency  to  bind  and  make  it  more  compact, 
and,  consequently,  more  retentive  of  moisture  ; and,  to  the  latter,  coats  of 
sandy  earth,  pond  mud,  horse  dung,’7  &c. — DV Mahon. 

Sow  artichokes,  11,  asparagus,  14,  horse,  or  garden  beans,  17,  kidney  beans, 
19,  beets,  22,  the  last  of  this  month,  or  the  first  of  next,  Borecole,  26,  Brus- 
sels sprouts,  29 ; sow  cabbage  seed,  30,  set  out  cabbage  plants,  31,  sow  car- 
doons,  37,  carrots,  38,  cauliflowers,  41,  celery,  43,  coleworts,  succession- 
crops  of  cresses,  48,  cucumbers  in  hollowed  turnips  placed  in  a hot-bed, 
53,  or  in  pots  under  hand-glasses,  &c. ; propagate  fruit-trees  by  cuttings. 
You  may  set  out  a few  dandelion  plants  in  your  garden,  57,  and  let  us  know 
how  you  succeed  in  attempting  to  domesticate  them.  Look  out  for,  and 
destroy  insects ; sow  a little  early  summer  endive,  58,  fennel,  59  ; pro- 
pagate garlic,  leeks,  60,  lettuce,  61,  marjoram,  onions,  72,  parsley,  78,  pars- 
nep,  79,  successive  crops  of  different  sorts  of  peas,  82,  potatoes,  87,  radish, 
95,  sage,  99,  salsify,  99,  savory,  100,  sea-kale,  101,  skirret,  102. 

MAY. 

You  may  now  sow  most  or  all  the  articles  mentioned  in  the  Calendar  for 
the  last  month,  either  as  first  or  succession-crops.  Plant  your  cucumbers, 
49,  and  melons,  63,  for  a general  crop  in  the  open  ground  about  the  20th  ; 
also,  squashes,  pumpkins,  and  gourds  ; likewise  Indian  corn  for  an  early  gar- 
den crop.  Plant  your  bush-beans  and  pole-beans,  for  your  principal  crop, 
at  any  time  when  most  convenient  during  the  month,  17.  It  is  recom- 
mended to  set  the  poles,  and  then  plant  the  beans  round  the  poles.  Weed 
and  thin  your  advancing  crops  of  radishes,  95.  Transplant  radishes  for 
seed,  95.  Sow  succession-crops  of  spinach,  103.  Carrots  may  be  sown  in 
the  Eastern  States  in  the  forepart  of  the  month,  38.  Weed  and  thin  beets, 
carrots,  parsneps,  onions,  early  turnips.  Sow  more  turnips  of  the  early  kinds 
for  crops  ill  succession.  Such  sowing  is  best  performed  in  the  first  week  of 
the  month,  in  order  that  the  roots  may  have  time  to  grow  to  a good  size  be- 
fore they  are  overtaken  by  summer  heat  and  drought.  Early  cauliflower 
plants,  as  they  advance  in  growth,  should  have  earth  drawn  up  about  their 
stems,  and  be  watered  in  dry  weather.  You  will  do  well  to  sow  peas  for 
succession-crops,  at  least  twice  this  month,  82.  You  may  set  out  or  trans- 
plant early  lettuce.  Sow  as  many  of  the  sorts  of  small  salading  as  you  may 
need  for  market  or  family  consumption.  Now  is,  perhaps,  as  proper  a 
time  as  any  in  the  year  for  pruning  fruit-trees.  The  season  for  pruning  is 
immediately  before,  or  commensurate  with,  the  rising  of  the  sap.  Let  your 
ducks  have  constant  employment  as  vermin  pickers.  Attack  insects  by 
sprinkling  over  them,  by  means  of  a syringe,  watering-pot,  or  garden  engine, 
simple  water,  soap  suds,  decoctions  of  tobacco,  of  elder,  See.  Sec. 


JUNE. 

Melons  and  cucumbers,  which  have  hitherto  been  protected  by  glasses  or 
paper  frames,  may  now  be  exposed  to  the  open  air.  If  the  season  be  at  all 
dry,  your  vegetables,  particularly  your  cucumbers,  will  need  water.  [See 


CALENDARIAL  INDEX. 


117 


Introduction.]  Be  careful  to  keep  your  crops  clean,  by  hand-weeding 
and  hoeing.  About  the  last  of  the  month,  you  may  sow  crops  of  me- 
lons and  cucumbers  for  pickling.  Thin  forward  melon  plants,  leaving  only 
two  or  three  in  a hill,  65.  Attend  to  your  cabbage  and  cauliflower  plants, 
as  well  as  your  beans,  &c.,  and  see  that  they  are  not  destroyed  by  the  cut 
worm.  “ If  you  perceive  any  plants  injured,  open  the  earth  at  the  foot  of  the 
plant,  and  you  will  never  fail  to  find  the  worm  at  the  root,  within  four  inches. 
Kill  him,  and  you  will  save  not  only  the  other  plants  of  your  garden,  but 
probably  many  thousands  in  future  years.”  Hoe  and  bush  your  late  peas  ; 
plant  more  potatoes,  succession-crops  of  kidney  beans,  19,  peas,  82,  small 
salads  and  lettuce  every  week  or  ten  days.  “ Thin  out  and  earth  up  all  your 
plants ; remember  that  frequent  hoeing  is  both  rain  and  manure  to  your  ve- 
getables in  dry  weather.”  Celery  plants  may  now  be  planted  out  in  trenches, 
43.  When  the  plants  have  grown  to  the  height  of  eight  or  ten  inches,  draw 
earth  about  them,  breaking  it  fine.  This  should  be  done  in  dry  weather,  be- 
ing careful  not  to  bury  the  heart.  Plant  out  cabbages,  cauliflowers,  broccoli, 
&c.,  in  moist  or  cloudy  weather,  but  not  when  the  ground  is  wet  and  heavy. 
Cut  and  dry  such  herbs  as  have  come  to  maturity,  for  winter  use.  You 
may  as  well  dry  and  pulverize  some  kinds,  if  you  choose.  Look  over 
your  grafted  trees,  and  you  may  ascertain  whether  the  scion  has  united  with 
the  stock.  Take  off  the  clay,  and  loosen  the  bandages  of  such  grafts  as  have 
succeeded,  and  tie  weak  grafts  and  dangling  shoots  from  budded  stocks  to  neat 
shakes.  Rub  off'  all  superfluous,  irregular,  or  ill  placed  shoots  or  suckers. 
Where  your  fruit  trees  appear  to  be  overloaded  with  fruit,  pick  off  a part, 
and  carefully  gather  all  that  which  has  fallen  and  give  to  your  swine,  in  or- 
der to  destroy  the  curculio. 

JULY. 

Clean  and  prepare  your  ground  where  your  early  crops  of  peas,  spinage. 
cauliflowers,  and  cabbages  grew,  and  all  other  vacant  spots,  to  cultivate 
thereon  such  plants  as  are  proper  to  supply  your  table,  in  autumn  and  winter, 
with  later-grown  productions.  You  may  continue  to  sow  crops  of  small  sal- 
ading  every  eight  or  ten  days,  as  directed  in  former  months  ; but  they 
should  now  be  sown  on  shady  borders,  or  else  be  shaded  by  mats,  occasion- 
ally, from  the  mid-day  sun,  and  frequently  watered,  both  before  and  after  the 
plants  appear  above  ground.  You  may  now  plant  out  your  celery  plants  in 
trenches,  43,  unless  you  have  already  performed  that  operation,  as  directed 
last  month.  About  the  middle  of  July,  and  from  that  time  to  the  end  of  the 
first  wTeek  in  August,  you  may  sow  turnips,  111.  Thin  and  transplant  such 
lettuces  as  were  sown  last  month,  and  sow  more  lettuce-seed  in  the  begin- 
ning, middle,  and  last  week  of  this  month,  in  order  to  have  a constant  supply 
for  the  table,  61.  Sow  likewise  radishes,  95,  and  in  the  last  week  of  this 
month  a good  crop  of  spinach  may  be  sown  for  autumn  use  ; it  will  not  then 
be  so  liable  to  run  to  seed  as  in  the  preceding  months.  It  is  a good  practice 
to  sow  early  kinds  of  cabbages,  30,  about  this  time,  for  a supply  of  young 
greens  during  autumn.  Collect  all  kinds  of  seeds  as  they  come  to  maturity, 
cutting  off  or  pulling  up  the  stems  with  the  seeds  attached,  as  they  ripen. 
Spread  them  in  some  airy  place  under  cover,  turning  them  now  and  then, 
that  the  seeds  may  dry  and  harden  gradually,  and  be  careful  not  to  lay  them 
so  thick  as  to  hazard  their  heating  and  fermenting.  When  they  are  suffi- 
ciently dry,  beat  out  and  clean  the  seeds,  and  deposit  them  in  bags  or  boxes 


118 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


till  wanted.  Give  water  to  such  plants  as  require  it,  hut  let  this  be  always 
done  in  the  evening,  that  it  may  be  of  use  to  the  vegetables  before  the  sun 
shall  cause  it  to  evaporate. 

You  may  now  inoculate  or  bud  your  fruit-trees,  and,  where  it  can  be 
done  without  inconvenience,  it  will  be  well  to  turn  swine  into  your  orchard 
to  eat  the  fallen  and  decayed  fruit,  and  thus  destroy  the  insects  which  it  con- 
tains. If,  however,  this  cannot  well  be  done,  oi  you  have  not  swine  in  suffi- 
cient numbers  to  devour  all  your  fallen  fruit,  it  will  be  well  to  gather  and 
carry  it  from  the  ground  before  the  insects,  which  inhabit  it,  make  their  way 
into  the  earth,  and  make  you  destructive  visitations  another  season. 

AUGUST. 

Keep  all  your  crops  clear  from  weeds,  using  the  hoe  where  safe  and  con 
venient;  otherwise  make  claw-hoes  of  your  hands,  and  weed-extracting  nip- 
pers of  your  thumb  and  fore-tingers.  Pull  up  the  haulm  of  peas,  beans,  &c., 
and  remove  it  to  your  compost  bed ; bury  it  between  rows  of  plants,  or 
throw  it,  together  with  all  weeds,  &c.,to  your  swine,  that  your  premises  may 
have  a neat  appearance.  Cut  such  herbs  as  are  now  in  flower,  to  distill,  or 
to  dry  for  winter  use,  being  careful  to  do  it  when  they  are  dry,  and  spread 
them  in  a dry,  shady  place ; for,  if  they  are  dried  in  the  sun,  they  will  shrink 
very  much,  turn  black,  and  prove  of  little  value.  Your  dung-hills  and  com- 
post-heaps should,  during  the  summer  months,  be  kept  free  from  weeds,  for 
if  the  seeds  are  permitted  to  ripen  and  fall,  the  dung  when  carried  into  the 
garden,  will  disseminate  weeds  innumerable.  Attend  to  plants  set  out  for 
seed,  and  put  stakes  to  such  as  need  support.  This  month,  as  well  as 
the  latter  part  of  July,  is  the  proper  season  for  inoculating  or  budding. 
JVPMahon  says,  w Cherries,  plums,  or  any  other  fruit-trees,  may  be  budded 
in  August,  if  the  bark  parts  freely  from  the  stock.  Pears  ought  to  be  inocu- 
lated the  early  part  of  the  month,  or  while  the  sap  flows  freely;  but  the 
peach,  nectarine,  almond,  and  apple,  will  succeed  any  time  between  the  first 
of  August  and  twentieth  of  September,  provided  the  stocks  are  young  and 
vigorous.” 

Preserve  peach,  plum,  cherry,  and  apricot  stones,  &c.,  to  sow  for  raising 
stocks  to  bud  and  graft  on.  These  may  either  be  sown  immediately,  or  kept 
in  common  garden  earth,  or  moist  sand.  But  it  will  be  necessary  to  sow 
them  before  the  stones  open,  and  the  radicles  begin  to  shoot ; otherwise  ma- 
ny of  them  will  be  broken  or  torn  in  the  process  of  sowing.  Every  day  they 
are  kept  out  of  ground  is  an  injury  to  them  ; and  if  they  remain  in  a dry  slate 
till  spring,  very  few  will  vegetate  till  a year  after,  and  the  greater  number 
not  at  all.  Continue  to  collect  and  preserve  seeds  as  directed  last  month. 
Sow  onions  to  stand  over  winter,  72  ; likewise,  cauliflowers,  41 . 

SEPTEMBER. 

Hoe  and  thin  your  growing  crops  of  spinach,  103.  In  the  first  week  of  this 
month,  sow  a full  crop  of  the  prickly-seeded  kind  for  winter  and  spring  use, 
103.  And,  at  the  same  time,  you  should  sow  a good  supply  of  the  early 
short-top,  white  and  red  turnip-rooted  and  salmon  radishes,  95.  Earth  up 
celery  as  it  advances  in  growth,  but  be  careful  to  avoid  covering  the  hearts 
of  the  plants.  This  work  should  be  done  in  a dry  day.  See  that  you  do  not 
bruise  or  injure  the  stalks  ; for  if  they  are  crushed  or  wounded,  they  will  be 
subject  to  rot.  Gather  all  kinds  of  seeds  as  they  ripen,  whkh  may  be 


CALENDAR! AT.  TNDEX. 


119 


necessary  for  the  ensuing  season.  Towards  the  latter  end  of  the  month,  you 
may  safely  transplant  all  kinds  of  hardy  perennial,  aromatic,  and  medicinal 
herbs,  which  will  thus  become  well  rooted  before  winter.  This  work  should, 
if  possible,  be  done  in  moist  weather.  Pull  and  preserve  your  ripe  onions, 
72,  and  sow  more  to  stand  over  winter,  76.  Protect  your  grapes  and  other 
fruit  against  wasps.  This  may  be  done  by  hanging  up  phials  of  honeyed  or 
sugared  water  near  the  fruit  you  wish  to  defend  from  their  attacks,  in  which 
many  of  the  tiny  depredators  will  be  caught  and  destroyed.  Thoroughly 
clean  from  weeds  all  the  seed-beds  and  young  plantations  of  trees,  shrubs, 
&c.  Gather  cucumbers  and  mangoes  for  pickling  before  they  spot.  Sow 
cauliflowers  about  the  20th,  41. 

OCTOBER. 

The  young  cabbage  plants,  produced  from  seeds  sown  last  month,  and  in- 
tended for  early  summer  cabbages,  should  be  transplanted  into  the  beds  in 
which  they  are  to  remain  during  winter,  30. 

Prepare  a bed  for  them,  the  wridth  of  your  garden  frame,  in  a warm,  well- 
sheltered  place,  where  the  sun  has  the  greatest  power;  yet  be  careful  never 
to  admit  the  direct  sunshine  on  the  plants,  when  in  a frozen  state.  When 
you  have  no  glasses,  the  plants  maybe  protected  during  winter  by  boards  or 
mats,  giving  air  in  mild  weather.  Cauliflowers  sown  in  August  or  Septem- 
ber should  be  raised  carefully,  and  protected,  during  the  cold  season,  in  garden 
frames,  with  boards,  mats,  & c.,  or  perhaps  some  may  survive  if  set  in  open 
borders,  or  they  may  be  set  in  pots,  42.  Weed  and  thin  your  late  crops 
of  spinach,  leaving  the  best  plants  at  the  distance  of  three,  four,  or  five  inches 
asunder,  103.  Early  in  the  month,  hoe  and  earth  up  the  late-planted  crops 
of  cabbages,  broccoli,  and  borecole,  cauliflowers  and  other  plants  of  the  bras- 
sica  genus.  Towards  the  end  of  the  month,  if  the  stalks  of  asparagus  turn 
yellow,  cut  them  close  to  the  earth ; clear  the  beds  and  alleys  from  wTeeds, 
and  carry  them  with  the  stalks  off  the  ground.  It  will  then  not  be  amiss  to 
cover  the  beds  and  alleys  with  old  litter,  well  trodden  down,  to  be  removed 
in  the  spring.  Or  you  may  apply  manure  now,  instead  of  in  spring,  as 
you  judge  best.  Cut  dowm  all  decayed  flower  stems,  and  shoots  of  the  vari- 
ous kind  of  aromatic,  pot  and  medicinal  herbs,  close  to  the  plants ; clear  the 
beds  from  weeds  and  litter,  and  carry  the  whole  off  the  ground.  Onions  may 
now  be  planted  out  to  raise  seed,  instead  of  setting  them  in  the  spring,  as  di- 
rected p.  76.  The  seeds  of  dill,  skirret,  rhubarb,  sea-kale,  may  now  be 
sown;  for,  if  kept  out  of  ground  till  spring,  many  of  them  will  not  vegetate 
till  a year  after;  but  w7hen  sown  in  October  or  November,  if  the  seeds  are 
fresh  and  perfect,  they  will  vegetate  in  the  April  following.  Begin  to  take 
up  and  secure  potatoes,  87,  beets,  22,  carrots,  parsneps,  turnips,  Jerusalem 
artichokes,  Sec..  13.  Give  a general  hoeing  and  weeding  to  all  your  crops, 
and  carry  the  weeds  out  of  the  garden.  Such  spaces  of  ground  as  are  now 
vacant  should  be  dunged,  dug,  or  trenched,  and  thus  have  the  advantage  of  a 
winter  fallow7,  and  that  exposure  to  frost,  wrhich  will  reduce  it  to  fine  tilth, 
and  destroy  wrnrms,  the  larvae  of  insects,  Sec.  The  old  beds  of  strawberries 
should,  some  time  in  this  month,  be  cleaned  from  w7eeds,  and  the  vines  or 
runners  taken  off  close  to  the  plants.  Then,  if  there  be  room,  loosen  the 
earth  to  a moderate  depth  between  the  plants,  taking  care  not  to  disturb  the 
roots.  And  if  the  plants  are  in  beds  wflth  alleys  between,  line  out  the  alleys, 
and  let  them  be  dug  a moderate  depth,  breaking  the  earth  very  fine,  and 


120 


AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDENER. 


spreading  a sufficiency  of  it  over  the  beds,  between  and  round  the  beds,  ta- 
king care  not  to  bury  their  tops.  A slight  top  dressing  of  compost,  such  as 
described  p.  286,  may  now  be  applied.  It  may  now  be  time  to  gather  and 
preserve  apples  and  pears,  though  it  is  best  to  let  them  remain  on  the 
trees  as  long  as  they  are  safe  from  frost.  If  you  are  not  apprehensive  of 
the  depredations  of  mice,  rats,  squirrels,  &c.  you  may  sow  the  stones  of  plums, 
peaches,  nectarines,  apricots,  &c. ; or  you  may,  if  you  think  it  more  prudent, 
preserve  them  in  sand  till  March  or  April. 

NOVEMBER. 

Gather  from  your  garden,  before  the  hard  frosts  commence,  all  those  fruits 
of  your  labors,  which  you  wish  to  preserve  through  the  winter,  not  forgetting 
winter  squashes.  Take  up  and  preserve  cabbages,  as  directed  p.  35.  Pre- 
serve your  celery,  44.  You  may  gather  a part  in  dry  weather,  and  pack  it 
in  boxes  in  dry  sand,  and  place  the  boxes  in  a warm  cellar,  leaving  the  tops 
and  leaves  open  to  the  air.  Those  cabbage  and  cauliflower  plants,  which 
you  mean  shall  stand  through  the  winter  in  frames,  should,  during  the  con- 
tinuance of  mild  weather,  be  allowed  every  advantage  of  free  air,  to  inure 
them,  by  degrees,  to  bear  cold.  Take  the  glasses  off  entirely,  in  the  warm 
part  of  the  day,  but  place  them  again  at  night,  and  in  wet  or  cold  weather. 
If  your  beets,  turnips,  parsneps,  &c.  are  not  secured,  take  them  up,  and  pre- 
serve them,  as  directed  last  month.  You  may  now  sow  the  seeds  of  rhubarb, 
sea-kale,  skirrets,  parsneps,  and  many  other  kinds,  which  are  somewhat  slow 
in  vegetating,  and  they  will  come  forward  early,  and  grow  vigorously  in  the 
spring.  In  the  beginning  of  this  month,  you  may  manure  and  trench  the 
ground  which  is  intended  for  early  crops,  and,  if  it  be  of  a stiff,  heavy  nature, 
lay  it  up  in  ridges,  to  receive  the  benefit  of  the  winter  frosts.  You  may  now 
sow  early  peas,  to  come  up  in  the  spring,  if  you  can  preserve  them  against 
mice,  84.  This  is,  perhaps,  as  eligible  a period  as  any  for  the  planting  of 
apple-trees,  and  other  fruit-trees,  or  sowing  seeds  in  a nursery.  Lay  light 
litter  of  some  kind  a good  thickness  over  the  roots  of  the  more  tender  and 
choice  kinds  of  trees  and  shrubs,  to  protect  them  from  frost. 

DECEMBER. 

The  severity  of  the  weather  in  this  month  generally  allows  but  little  to  be 
done  in  the  Middle  and  Northern  States.  Should  the  season  permit,  you  may 
perform  any  of  the  operations  directed  for  last  month,  which  remain  unfin- 
ished. If  the  weather  continues  open,  carry  out  and  spread  manure,  and 
trench  the  ground,  as  directed  for  the  last  month.  Provide  from  the  woods, 
&c.  pea-sticks  and  bean-poles,  of  suitable  lengths  and  sizes,  as  directed  in 
January.  Collect  all  your  old  sticks  and  poles,  which  are  still  fit  for  use, 
and  place  them  together  with  your  new  ones  under  cover,  to  prevent  their 
rotting.  Be  careful  to  shut  the  frost  out  of  the  apartments  in  which  you  have 
stored  your  fruit  for  winter  and  spring  use.  Examine  the  fruit  which  you 
have  on  shelves  in  cellars,  once  every  ten  days,  and  take  away  any  that  you 
find  tainted.  Repair  all  decayed  trellises,  espaliers,  &c.  Procure  stakes  and 
othei  materials  which  may  be  wanted  in  a more  busy  season. 


SAXTON’S  COTTAGE  AND  FAR!  LIBRARY. 


THE 

AMERICAN  ROSE  CULTURIST; 

BEING  A 

I 

PRACTICAL  TREATISE 

ON  THE 

PROPAGATION,  CULTIVATION,  AND  MANAGEMENT 

OF 

THE  ROSE 

IN  ALL  SEASONS;  WITH  A LIST  OF  CHOICE  AND  APPROVED  VARIETIES, 
ADAPTED  TO  THE  CLIMATE  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  J 

TO  WHICH  ARE  ADDED 

FULL  DIRECTIONS  FOR  THE  TREATMENT  OF 

THE  DAHLIA. 

Illustrated  “by  Engravings, 


“——No  flower  that  blows 
Is  like  the  Rose,  nor  scatters  such  perfume.” 

Nsto  York: 

C.  M.  SAXTON,  AGRICULTURAL  BOOK  PUBLISHER 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1852,  by 
C.  M.  SAXTON, 

in  the  Clerk’s  Office  of  the  District  Court  for  the  Southern  District 
of  New  York. 


ADVERTISEMENT. 


The  marked  effect  with  which  the  a Cottage  Bee  Keeper  ” was 
received,  as  the  first  of  the  series  of  Saxton’s  Cottage  and 
Farm  Library, ^ has  led  the  Publisher  to  issue  the  present 
treatise  on  the  Bose  and  the  Dahlia. 

No  pains  will  be  spared  in  bringing  out  the  succeeding  volumes 
agreeably  to  the  plan  of  the  original  design;  and  if  practicable,  it  is 
hoped  that  they  will  be  still  more  deserving  of  success  than  those 
which  have  already  appeared. 

The  publisher  acknowledges  his  indebtedness  to  Messrs.  Lea  and 
Blanchard,  of  Philadelphia,  for  the  permission  granted  for  using  Lan- 
dreth’s  “ Dictionary  of  Modern  Gardening,”  in  the  compilation  of  this 
work.  He  also  takes  this  occasion  to  thank  Mr.  William  H.  Starr  for 
the  use  of  several  engravings  herein  employed 

C.  M.  SAXTON, 

Agricultural  Book  Publisher, 

152  Fulton  Street. 


INDEX 


THE  ROSE. 


PAGE 


Briers 19,  30 

Budding 51 

Spring . 55 

Calendar  of  Operations 73 

Flowering  of  Seedlings,  Hastening  of. ...  47 

Retarding  of. 49 

Forcing 39,  42,  43,  44 

Grafting 57 

Root 58 

Hints,  General,  on  Cultivation 67 

Insects  infesting  the  Rose 80 

Manures  proper  for  the  Rose 37 

Pillar  Roses 64,  65 

Planting  of  the  Rose 37 

Poetical  Allusions  to  the  Rose 5,  6,  7,  8 

Potting  of  Roses 39,  41 

Propagation  by  Budding 51 

Cuttings 49 

Grafting 57 

Layers 50 

Seed 45 

Suckers . ..  i . 49 

Properties  of  Climbing  Roses 35 

Moss  Roses 32 

Noisette  Roses 34 

Roses  for  Stands 34 

Pruning 60,  65,  66 

Standards 61 

and  Trailing  Pillar  Roses 64,  65 

Root  Grafting 58 

Roses,  Austrian  Brier 19 

Banksian... 21,  26 


PAGE 

Roses,  Bengal 8 

Bourbon. 11,21, 

Boursault 

Burgundy 

China 17, 

Climbing 14,  20,  21, 

Damask 

Double  Yellow 

Evergreen 

French 17, 

Hardy  Garden 

Hybrid 12,17, 

Jaune  Desprez 

Macartney 

Microphylla 

Miniature 22 

Moss 17,34 

Musk 15,  23 

Noisette 13,  23,  34 

Perpetual 12,21 

Pillar 64 

Provence 16 

Scotch 19 

Species  of. 8 

Sweet  Brier 19,  30 

Tea-scented 9,  22 

Varieties  of 8 

Village  Maid 29 

White 18 

Williams’  Yellow  Sweet  Brier.. .. . 30 

Soil  proper  for  the  Rose 36 

Species  and  Varieties. 8 


THE  DAHLIA. 


PAGE 


After  Culture....... 94 

History 78 

Mulching 93 

Planting  out 92 

Propagation  by  Grafting  and  Slips 90 

Seed 89 

Slips 90 

Requisites  of  a Fine  Flower 88 


Situation 

Soil,  Preparation  of.... 
Treatment,  Autumnal. 

of  Slips 

Spring 

when  flowering. 
Watering 


PAGE 
,.  91 
..  91 
. 94 
,.  91 
..  92 
. 94 
..  93 


THE  ROSE. 


INTRODUCTION. 

Rose  ! thou  art  the  sweetest  flower 
That  ever  drank  the  amber  shower  ; 

Rose  ! thou  art  the  fondest  child 
Of  dimpled  Spring,  the  wood  nymph  wild. 

Anacreon. 

]HE  Rose,  the  emblem  of  beauty  and  the  pride 
of  Flora,  reigns  Queen  of  the  Flowers  in  every 
part  of  the  globe ; and  the  bards  of  all  nations 
and  languages  have  sung  its  praises.  Yet 
what  poet  has  been  able,  or  language  sufficient, 
to  do  justice  to  a plant  that  has  been  denom- 
inated the  Daughter  of  Heaven,  the  glory  of 
spring,  and  the  ornament  of  the  earth  ? As 
it  is  the  most  common  of  all  that  compose  the 
garland  of  Flora,  so  it  is  the  most  delightful. 
Every  country  boasts  of  it,  and  every  behold- 
er admires  it.  Poets  have  celebrated  its  charms  without  exhausting 
its  eulogium ; for  its  allurements  increase  upon  a familiarity,  and  every  * 
fresh  view  presents  new  beauties,  and  gives  additional  delight.  Hence 
it  renovates  the  imagination  of  the  bard,  and  the  very  name  of  the 
flower  gives  harmony  to  his  numbers,  as  its  odors  give  sweetness  to 
the  air. 


6 


INTRODUCTION. 


To  paint  this  universal  emblem  of  delicate  splendor  in  its  own  hues, 
the  pencil  should  be  dipped  in  the  tints  of  Aurora,  when  arising  amidst 
her  aerial  glory.  Human  art  can  neither  color  nor  describe  so  fair  a 
flower.  Yenus  herself  feels  a rival  in  the  Bose,  whose  beauty  is  com- 
posed of  all  that  is  exquisite  and  graceful.  It  has  been  made  the 
symbol  of  sentiments  as  opposite  as  various.  Piety  seized  it  to  deco- 
rate the  temples,  while  Love  expressed  its  tenderness  by  wreaths ; and 
Jollity  revelled  adorned  with  crowns  of  roses.  Grief  strews  it  on  the 
tomb,  and  Luxury  spreads  it  on  the  couch.  It  is  mingled  with  our 
tears,  and  spread  in  our  gayest  walks ; in  epitaphs,  it  expresses  youth- 
ful modesty  and  chastity,  while  in  the  songs  of  the  Bacchanalians 
their  god  is  compared  to  this  flower.  The  beauty  of  the  morning  is 
allegorically  represented  by  it,  and  Aurora  is  depictured  strewing 
roses  before  the  chariot  of  Phoebus : 

“When  morning  paints  the  orient  skies, 

Her  fingers  burn  with  roseate  dyes.” 

The  Bose  is  thought  to  have  given  name  to  the  Holy  Land  where 
Solomon  sang  its  praises,  as  Syria  appears  to  be  derived  from  Suri,  a 
beautiful  and  delicate  species  of  Bose,  for  which  that  country  has  al- 
ways been  famous ; and  hence  called  Suristan , or  the  u Land  of  Boses.’ r 
The  island  of  Bhodes  owes  its  name  to  the  prodigious  quantity  of 
roses  which  formerly  grew  upon  its  soil. 

Of  the  birth  of  the  Bose,  it  is  related  in  fable,  that  Plora  having 
found  the  corpse  of  a favorite  Nymph,  whose  beauty  of  person  was 
only  surpassed  by  the  purity  of  her  heart  and  chastity  of  her  mind, 
resolved  to  raise  a plant  from  the  precious  remains  of  this  daughter  of 
the  Dryads,  for  which  purpose  she  begged  the  assistance  of  Yenus 
and  the  Graces,  as  well  as  of  all  the  deities  that  preside  over  gardens, 
to  assist  in  the  transformation  of  the  Nymph  into  a flower,  that  was 
to  be  by  them  proclaimed  Queen  of  all  the  vegetable  beauties.  The 
ceremony  was  attended  by  the  Zephyrs,  who  cleared  the  atmosphere, 
in  order  that  Apollo  might  bless  the  new-created  progeny  by  his 
beams.  Bacchus  supplied  rivers  of  nectar  to  nourish  it,  and  Yertumnus 
poured  his  choicest  perfumes  over  the  plant.  When  the  metamor- 
phosis was  complete,  Pomona  strewed  her  fruit  over  the  young 
branches,  which  were  then  crowned  by  Flora  with  a diadem,  that  had 
been  purposely  prepared  by  the  celestials  to  distinguish  this  Queen  of 
Klowers. 


iNTHomrcTroK. 


7 


Anacreon’s  birth  of  the  Rose  stands  thus  translated  by  Moore : 

“ Oh  ! whence  could  such  a plant  have  sprung  ? 

Attend — for  thus  the  tale  is  sung ; 

When,  humid  from  the  silvery  stream, 

Venus  appeared,  in  flushing  hues, 

Mellowed  by  ocean’s  briny  dews  — 

When,  in  the  starry  courts  above, 

The  pregnant  brain  of  mighty  Jove 
Disclosed  the  nymph  of  azure  glance — 

The  nymph  who  shakes  the  martial  lance  ! 

Then,  then,  in  strange  eventful  hour, 

The  earth  produced  an  infant  flower, 

Which  sprung,  with  blushing  tinctures  drest, 

And  wantoned  o’er  its  parent’s  breast. 

The  gods  beheld  this  brilliant  birth, 

And  hailed  the  rose— the  boon  of  earth  ! 

With  nectar  drops  a ruby  tide, 

The  sweetly-orient  buds  they  dyed, 

And  bade  them  bloom,  the  flowers  divine 
Of  him  who  sheds  the  teeming  vine  ; 

And  bade  them  on  the  spangled  thorn 
Expand  their  bosoms  to  the  morn.” 

The  first  Rose  ever  seen  was  said  to  have  been  given  by  the  god  of 
IoVe  to  Harpocrates,  the  god  of  silence,  to  engage  him  not  to  divulge 
the  amours  of  his  mother  Yenus ; and  from  hence  the  ancients  made  it 
a symbol  of  silence,  and  it  became  a custom  to  place  a Rose  above  their 
heads  in  their  banqueting  rooms,  in  order  to  banish  restraint,  as  no- 
thing there  said  would  be  repeated  elsewhere ; and  from  this  practice 
originated  the  saying,  sub  rosa , (under  the  rose,)  when  anything 
Was  to  be  kept  secret. 

Oriana,  when  confined  a prisoner  in  a lofty  tower,  threw  a wet  Rose 
to  her  lover  to  express  her  grief  and  love;  and  in  the  floral  language 
of  the  East,  the  presenting  a rose  bud  with  thorns  and  leaves,  is  under- 
stood to  express  both  fear  and  hope ; and  when  returned,  reversed,  it 
signifies  that  one  must  neither  entertain  fear  nor  hope.  If  the  thorns 
be  taken  off  before  it  is  returned,  then  it  expresses  that  one  has  every- 
thing to  hope;  but  if  the  leaves  be  stripped  off,  it  gives  the  receiver  to 
understand  that  he  has  everything  to  fear. 

The  Moss  Rose  is  made  the  emblem  of  voluptuous  love ; and  the 
creative  imagination  of  a German  poet  thus  pleasingly  accounts  for 
this  Rose  having  clad  itself  in  a mossy  garment : 

The  angel  of  the  flowers  one  day 

Beneath.a  rose  tree  sleeping  lay. 


8 


SPECIES  AND  VARIETIES. 


That  spirit  to  whose  charge  is  given 
To  bathe  young  buds  in  dews  from  heaven, 
Awaking  from  his  light  repose, 

The  angel  whispered  to  the  rose, — 

* Oh,  fondest  object  of  my  care, 

Still  fairest  found  where  all  are  fair. 

For  the  sweet  shade  thou’st  given  to  me, 
Ask  what  thou  wilt,  ’tis  granted  thee.’ 

* Then,’  said  the  rose,  with  deepened  glow, 

* On  me  another  grace  bestow.’ 

The  spirit  paused  in  silent  thought — 

What  grace  was  there  that  flower  had  not  ? 
’Twas  but  a moment — o’er  the  rose 
A veil  of  moss  the  angel  throws  ; 

And,  robed  in  nature’s  simplest  weed, 

Can  there  a flower  that  rose  exceed  ?” 


SPECIES  AND  VARIETIES. 


Botanists  enumerate  at  least  eighty  distinct  species  of  the  Rose,  and 
florists  an  almost  innumerable  number  of  varieties  and  sub-varieties, 
most  of  which  are  hardy,  deciduous,  or  evergreen  shrubs.  To  attempt 
a description  or  even  to  give  a list  of  the  names  of  all  of  these  would 
be  foreign  to  the  design  of  this  little  treatise,  and  would  be  a needless 
waste  of  time,  for  the  simple  reason  that  many  of  them  are  unworthy 
of  preservation,  while  in  others,  nothing  short  of  the  nicest  and  the 
most  minute  inspection  can  discover  any  difference. 

The  following  are  the  names  and  characters  of  the  more  important 
and  desirable  members  of  this  family,  best  adapted  to  this  country 
and  may  be  purchased  at  any  of  our  principal  florists : — 

Bctxaai  or  Jiafln  Hoses. 


Names . 
Animated, 

Arsenie, 

Augustine  Hersent, 
Assuerus, 

Admiral  Duperre, 
Belle  Isidore, 


Color  a 71  d Characters 

Rosy  blush. 

Light  rose. 
Superb  rose. 
Crimson. 

Dark  rose. 
Crimson. 


SPECIES  AND  VARIETIES. 


0 


Names. 

Color  and  Charac\ 

Belle  de  Monza, 

Dark  rose. 

Belle  violet, 

Violet  purple. 

Bisson, 

Posy  blush. 

Burette, 

Dark  red. 

Cameleon, 

Pose. 

Cramoisi  superieur, 

Crimson. 

Cels, 

Blush. 

Comble  de  gloire, 

Crimson. 

Don  Carlos, 

Dark  rose. 

Duchess  of  Kent, 

Pink. 

Eugene  Beauharnais, 

Crimson. 

Fabvier, 

Scarlet. 

Grandral, 

Crimson. 

Grandida, 

Pose. 

Hortensia, 

Light  rose. 

Indica  alba, 

Pure  white. 

Jacksonia, 

Bright  red. 

Louis-Philippe, 

Crimson. 

Lady  Warrender, 

White. 

Lauren  cia, 

Pink. 

Marjolin, 

Crimson. 

Mrs.  Bosanquet, 

Large,  blush. 

[Napoleon, 

Pose,  fine. 

Peine  de  Lombardie, 

Cherry  red. 

Samson, 

Light  rose. 

Triomphant, 

Crimson. 

Vanilla, 

Dark  rose. 

&ea*scente&  S&oses. 

Names. 

Color  and  Charac 

Archduchess  Theresa, 

White. 

Aurora, 

Blush. 

Alba,  . 

Pure  white. 

Arkinto, 

Flesh  color. 

Adelaide, 

Blush. 

Antherose, 

Blush  white. 

Adam, 

Posy  blush. 

Belle  Marguerite, 

Posy  purple. 

1* 


10 


SPECIES  AND  VARIETIES* 


I 


Names . 

Bougere, 

Boutrand, 

Bon  Sildne, 

Bourbon, 

Barbot, 

Camellia, 

Caroline, 

Countess  Albemarle, 

Due  d’ Orleans, 
Devoniensis, 

Devaux, 

Delphine  Gaudot, 
D’Arrance  de  Navarre, 
Eliza  Sauvage, 

Flon, 

Flavescens, 

Golcondi, 

Goubault, 

Gigantesque  de  Lima, 
Gloria  de  Hardi, 

Hymenee, 

Jaune  Panache, 

La  Sylphide, 

Lilieina, 

Lyonnais, 

La  Pactole, 

La  Renomme, 

Madame  Desprez, 

Mansais, 

Niphetos, 

Odoratissima, 

Prineesse  Maria, 

Princesse  d’Esterhazy, 
Strombio, 

Triomphe  de  Luxembourg, 
Victoria  modeste, 

William  Wallace, 


Color  and  Character 

Light  rose. 

Rosy  blush. 
Superb  red. 
White. 

Blush. 

White. 

Bright  rose. 
Straw  color. 
Bright  rose. 
Creamy  y ellow# 
Blush. 

White. 

Light  pink. 

Pale  sulphur. 
Buff. 

Yellow. 

Blush  white. 
Rosy  blush. 
Light  yellow. 
Light  rose. 
White. 

Straw  color. 
Rosy  buff 
Lilac. 

Rose. 

Yellow. 

White. 

White. 

Rosy  buff 
White, 

Rich  blush. 
Blush. 

Light  rose. 
White. 

Rosy  blush. 
Blush. 

Pale  blush. 


SPECIES  AND  VARIETIES. 


11 


SSourbon  looses. 


Names. 

Augustine  Lelieur, 

Acidalie, 

1 \ 
Comte  de  Rambuteau, 

Ceres, 

Cytherea, 

Comte  d’Eu, 

Doctor  Rocques, 

Dumont  de  Courset, 

Du  Petit  Thouars, 

Emilie  Courtier, 

Gloire  de  Rosamene, 
Gloire  de  Paris, 

Grand  Capitaine, 

Gloire  de  France, 
Hermosa, 

Henri  Plantier, 
Imperatrice  J osephine, 
Lady  Canning, 

Madame  Desprez, 

Madame  Souchet, 

Madame  Lacharme, 
Madame  Nerard, 

Marechal  de  Villars, 

Ninon  de  1’Enclos, 

Paul  Joseph, 

Princesse  Clementine, 
Phoenix, 

Pierre  de  St.  Cyr, 

Queen, 

Reine  de  Fontenay, 
Souchet, 

Souvenir  de  la  Malmaison, 
Theresita, 


Color  and  Character . 
Bright  rose. 

White,  large,  and  fine. 
Violet  purple. 

Dark  rose. 

Rosy  pink,  very  fragrant. 
Bright  carmine. 

Purple  crimson. 

Deep  purple. 

Rosy  red. 

Brilliant  crimson. 

Bright  red. 

Brilliant  scarlet. 

Rose,  very  fragrant. 
Light  pink. 

Pale  rose. 

Creamy  white. 

Deep  rose. 

Rosy  lilac. 

Blush,  fine. 

Blush  white. 

Light  rose. 

Rosy  purple,  fine. 

Dark  rose. 

Velvet  crimson. 

Deep  rosy  purple. 

Rose  red. 

Light  rose. 

Delicate  blush. 

Brilliant  rose. 

Deep  crimson. 

Creamy  white,  fine. 
Bright  carmine. 


12 


SPECIES  AND  VARIETIES. 


Remontant  or  ^wbrtD  perpetual  3Hoses. 


In  Europe,  these  Roses  are  highly  esteemed ; here,  their  reputation 
as  u perpetuals,”  has  been  seriously  injured,  in  consequence  of  their 
having  been,  in  many  instances,  worked  on  stocks  unsuited  either  to 
them,  or  to  our  climate. — Landreih . 


Names. 

Antinous, 

Aubernon, 

Augustine  Mouchelet, 
Baronne  Provost, 

Comte  de  Paris, 

Claire  du  Chatelet, 
Clementine  syringe, 
Comtesse  Duchatel, 
Crimson  or  rose  du  roi, 
D’ Angers, 

Doctor  Marjolin, 

Due  d’Aumale, 

Duchesse  de  Nemours, 
Duchesse  de  Sutherland, 
Edouard  J esse, 

Isaure, 

Israel, 

Insigne  D’Estotells, 
Josephine  Antoinette, 
Louis  Bonaparte, 

Lady  Fordwich, 

Lady  Alice  Peel, 

La  Reine,  or  Queen, 
Madame  Laffay, 
Marquise  Bocella, 

Mrs.  Elliott, 

Melanie  cornu, 

Newton, 

Palmyre, 

Princesse  Helene, 

Prince  Albert, 

Prudence  Roeser, 


Color  and  Character . 
Dark  crimson. 

Clear  red,  very  fine. 
Clear  bright  rose. 

Fine  rose  color. 

Dark  crimson. 

Purple  red. 

Pale  rose. 

Light  crimson. 

Delicate  rose. 

Pale  rose. 

Bright  rose. 

Dark  purple  crimson. 
Bright  pink. 

Sable. 

Rosy  blush. 

Deep  Rose. 

Rosy  carmine. 

Rose  color,  superb. 
Brilliant  rose. 

Rosy  red. 

Deep  crimson. 

Blush. 

Large  deep  rose. 

Yery  dark  crimson,  fine. 
Rosy  pink. 


SPECIES  AND  VARIETIES. 


13 


Names.  Color  and  Character . 


Prince  de  Salm, 

Dark  crimson. 

Prince  of  Wales, 

Rose  carmine. 

Heine  de  la  Guillotiere, 

Brilliant  crimson. 

Desquermus  or  Royal, 

Large  rose. 

Stanwell, 

Blush,  very  fine. 

Sisley, 

Large  bright  red. 

Noisette  or  Cluster =jFlotoermg  3&oses. 

Names. 

Color  and  Character. 

*Alba, 

Creamy  white. 

*Aimee  Yibert, 

Pure  white. 

Bengal  Lee, 

Blush,  fragrant. 

Cadot, 

Blush  lilac. 

Charles  Tenth, 

Purple. 

Conque  de  Yenus, 

White  rose  centre. 

Coeur  Jaune, 

White  yellow  centre. 

Champneyana, 

Rosy  white. 

*Comtesse  de  Grillion, 

Blush. 

Chromotelle, 

Large  yellow,  fine. 

*Euphrosine, 

Pale  yellow. 

Fellenberg, 

Crimson,  superb. 

*Gabriel, 

Blush,  fine. 

Jaune  Desprez, 

Rosy  yellow. 

* J ulienne  le  Sourd, 

Rose. 

Julie  de  Loynes, 

White. 

Lamarque, 

Creamy  white,  fine. 

La  Biche,  * 

Flesh  color. 

Lady  Byron, 

Pink,  fine. 

Lutea,  or  Smithii, 

Fine  yellow. 

Landreth’s  carmine, 

Carmine. 

*La  Nymphe, 

Pale  rose. 

Miss  Simpson, 

Blush. 

Orloff, 

Pink,  fine. 

*Ophire, 

Yellow,  fragrant. 

Sir  Walter  Scott, 

Deep  rose. 

Solfatare, 

Superb  dark  yellow. 

Yitellina, 

White. 

* Those  marked  * are  dwarfs. 


14 


SPECIES  AND  VARIETIES. 


<2Mmtfctnjj  Hoses. 


These  flower  annually  in  immense  clusters,  grow  rapidly,  and  are 
quite  hardy. — Landreth. 

t 

Color  and  Character. 


Names . 

Banksia  lutea, 
Banksia  alba, 
Boursault, 

Boursault  purpurea, 
Boursault  blush, 
Boursault  gracilis, 
Bengalensis  scandens, 
Felicite  perpetuelle, 
G-revillia, 


Multiflora, 

Multiflora  alba, 

Rubifolia,  Single  Michigan  or 
Prairie, 

Rubifolia  elegans, 

Rubifolia  purpurea, 

Rubifolia,  Queen  of  the  Prairies, 
Rubifolia  alba, 

Russelliana, 

Sempervirens  plena, 

Triomphe  de  Bollwyler, 

Laura  Davoust, 


Double  yellow. 

White. 

Rose  color. 

Purple. 

Large  blush. 

Bright  rose. 

Large  rosy  white. 

Blush  white. 

Greville  produces  im- 
mense clusters,  of  vari- 
ous colors  and  shades, 
from  white  to  crimson. 

Pink. 

Blush  white. 


Double  pink. 

Double  purple. 
Double  pink. 

Double  blush  white. 
Crimson  cottage  rose. 
Superb  white. 

Blush  white. 

White. 


i&fccopJslla  Hoses. 

Names.  Color  and  Character. 

Maria  Leonida,  White,  extra  fine. 

Microphylla  rosea,  Rose  color. 

Microphylla  odorata  alba,  Creamy  white. 


SPECIES  AND  VARIETIES. 


15 


3f&ustfc*acenteH  2&oses. 


Names . 

Moschata, 

Moschata  superba, 
Princesse  de  Nassau, 


Color  an d_  Character, 

White  semi-double. 

Pure  white,  very  double. 
White  double. 


Names, 

Miaulis, 

Coronation, 

Heine  des  roses, 

Due  d’ Orleans, 

Painted  Damask, 

Brennes, 

Rivers’  Greorge  IV., 

Hybride  blanche, 

Heureuse  surprise, 

Ranunculus, 

La  capricieuse, 

Royal  Provins, 

Du  Roi, 

Harrisonii, 

Moss,  Single, 

Moss,  Common, 

Moss,  Luxembourg, 

Moss,  White, 

Moss,  Crested, 

Moss,  Adelaide, 

York  and  Lancaster, 

Provins  Belgic, 

Four  Seasons, 

Moretti, 

Burgundy, 

Persian, 

Tillage  Maid,  or  La  Belle  Tilla- 
geoise, 

Austrian  Brier, 


looses.  • 

Color  and  Character . 
Rosy  purple. 

Purple  crimson. 
Bright  crimson. 

Dark  rose. 

White. 

Dark  pink. 

Superb  crimson. 
White. 

Carmine. 

Purple,  compact. 
Purple  crimson. 
Superb  pink. 

Perpetual,  bright  red. 
Yellow  Austrian  brier. 
Crimson,  very  mossy. 
Rose. 

Crimson. 

Perpetual. 

Red  and  white. 

Large  pink. 

Pink. 

Light  rose. 

Rose,  compact. 

Double  yellow. 

Rose,  striped  with  lilac. 
Deep  yellow. 


16 


SPECIES  AND  VARIETIES. 


In  contemplating  some  of  the  best  Eoses  from  the  various  families, 
we  cannot  help  admitting,  that,  compared  with  the  old  and  still  valued 
varieties,  more  than  two-thirds  even  of  our  selections  are  not  so  good 
in  character.  The  love  of  novelty  is  all-powerful ; a shade  of  color, 
the  slightest  difference  in  habit,  a different  season  of  bloom,  an  alter- 
ation in  the  size  or  color  of  the  foliage,  the  distinction  between  a slow 
and  a fast  growth,  have  always  been  considered  sufficient  by  sellers  to 
warrant  a ifew  name  and  a place  in  the  catalogues ; and  the  Eose, 
unlike  all  other  flowers,  began  with  better  varieties  than  hundreds  of 
their  successors,  or  rather  their  younger  rivals,  proved  to  be. 

Notwithstanding  many  of  the  early  Eoses  were  really  beautiful, 
and  hardly  admitted  of  much  improvement,  we  had,  at  a very  early 
period  of  the  fancy,  such  Eoses  as  the  Tuscan,  the  Cabbage,  the  Cab- 
bage Moss,  the  Maiden’s  Blush,  White  Provence,  and  Double  Yellow. 
These  have,  it  is  true,  been  succeeded  by  a few  worthy  of  ranking 
with  them,  but  they  have  to  be  selected  from  thousands  infinitely 
worse,  and  hundreds  which  ought  not,  for  the  raiser’s  honesty,  or  the 
buyer’s  good  sense,  to  have  even  passed  the  seed  bed.  If,  therefore, 
we  were  to  select,  to  lessen  our  readers’  difficulty  in  choosing,  we 
could  not  recommend  them  as  Eoses  equal  to  old  favorites ; for  not 
one  in  fifty  would  beat  the  few  we  have  mentioned,  and  which  ought 
to  be  the  first  they  furnish. 


The  Provence  Rose. 

The  Provence  Eose,  or,  as  it  has  been  called,  the  Hundred-leaved 
Eose,  is  a distinguishing  title  for  every  Eose  that  has  a remarkably 
double  flower,  unless  there  is  something  in  the  habit  or  character  that 
claims  for  it  another  title.  If  this  were  understood,  we  should  know 
what  we  are  about.  The  Moss  Eose  would  clearly  come  under  this, 
were  it  not  for  the  moss;  for  the  old  Cabbage  Eose,  and  the  Moss 
Eose  strongly  grown,  would  not  be  known  from  each  other,  except  for 
the  Moss;  and  the  Moss  Eose  would  be  a Moss  Eose,  if  ever  so  single, 
though  its  original  were  double  and  fine.  Now,  the  Provences,  of 
which  the  old  Cabbage  Eose  is  a sort  of  type,  and  generally  called  the 
Hundred-leaved  Eose,  ceases  to  deserve  this  name,  if  semi-double.  So 
that  although  the  origin  of  the  family  is  rightly  named,  many  pushed 
into  the  same  list  do  not  deserve  the  name. 


SPECIES  AND  VARIETIES. 


17 


Moss  Rose. 

This  family  is  distinguished  by  the  mossy  appearance  of  their  stems 
and  the  calyx,  and  therefore  there  is  no  difficulty  in  recognising  any 
member  of  the  family. 

The  French  Rose. 

This,  to  some  of  our  readers,  would  appear  to  mean  roses  raised  in 
France.  It  happens,  however,  that  the  original  was,  as  many  of  the 
leading  ones  were,  raised  by  Van  Eden,  in  Holland,  and  it  was  years 
before  the  French  raised  a single  seedling  from  them ; nevertheless 
some  of  the  so-called  varieties  were  raised  in  France,  but  as  there  are 
hundreds  raised  in  that  country  which  are  not  belonging  to  this  family, 
the  distinguishing  name  fails ; and  were  it  not  so,  they  are  so  unlike 
each  other  that  one  could  not  recognise,  in  any  particular  feature, 
enough  to  decide,  nor  do  the  rose  growers  themselves  appear  more 
certain. 


Hybrid  Provence  Roses. 

These  are  said  to  be  intermediate  between  French  and  Provence 
roses,  because  they  have  the  long  shoots  of  one  and  the  dense  foliage 
of  the  other ; the  said  long  shoots  and  dense  foliage  being  the  charac- 
teristics of  roses  of  other  families  in  quite  as  large  a degree,  and  even 
in  this  very  family,  we  have  varieties  which  seem  to  be  between  the 
Boursault  and  Provence.  So  that  all  is  indecision,  change,  uncertainty, 
and  frivolity.  In  this  family,  the  distinguishing  character  is  that  they 
“are  robust  and  hardy so  are  hundreds  that  do  not  belong  to  it. 


Hybrid  China  Roses. 

We  are  told  of  this  family,  that  the  numerous  varieties  give  a com- 
bination of  all  that  is  beautiful  in  a Rose.  They  are  said  to  owe  their 
origin  to  all  sorts  of  crosses ; but  there  is  a distinguishing  feature  in 
these,  if  it  be  adhered  to:  “ leaves  smooth,  glossy,  and  sub-evergreen; 
branches  long,  luxuriant,  and  flexible.”  Then,  again,  we  are  informed 
“that  hybrids  produced  from  the  Rose,  impregnated  with  the  China 


.8 


SPECIES  ANO  VARIETIES. 


Rose,  are  not  of  such  robust  and  vigorous  habits  as  when  the  China 
Rose  is  the  female  parent.”  This  looks  like  plain,  straightforward 
information ; but  it  is  followed  by  the  same  incertitude  as  some  of  the 
other  distinguishing  features  of  families.  Mr.  Rivers  adds:  “But,  per- 
haps, this  is  an  opinion  not  borne  out  by  facts ; for  the  exceptions  are 
numerous,  and  like  many  other  variations  in  roses,  and  plants  in  gen- 
eral, seems  to  bid  defiance  to  systematic  rules.”  Of  course,  they  do ; 
and,  with  the  exception  of  those  names  which  bespeak  a distinct  char- 
acter, the  splitting  of  this  beautiful  flower  into  so  many  different  fam- 
ilies at  all,  was  a very  injudicious  measure.  Athelin,  a Rose  classed  in 
this  group,  is  called  also  a Hybrid  Bourbon,  and  as  it  blooms  in  clus- 
ters, would  have  been  much  better  understood  if  called  a Noisette. 
It  comprises  other  roses  as  unlike  each  other  as  can  be  well  imagined, 
and  many  of  them  will  shoot  ten  feet  in  a season,  and  would  be  much 
more  at  home  if  classed  as  Climbing  Roses.  Belle  de  Rosny,  among 
this  family,  is  nevertheless  called  also  a Hybrid  Bourbon,  and  many 
others  of  this  family  are  destined  to  be  removed,  if  the  senseless  dis- 
tinctions by  name  are  to  be  kept  up. 


White  Hoses. 

Here  we  have  an  illustration  of  the  extreme  folly  of  the  present  dis- 
tinctions. We  are  told  the  roses  of  this  division  may  be  easily  dis- 
tinguished by  their  green  shoots,  and  leaves  of  a glaucous  green, 
looking  as  if  they  were  covered  with  a grayish  impalpable  powder ; 
and  flowers  generally  of  the  most  delicate  colors,  graduating  from  a 
pure  white  to  a bright  but  delicate  pink. 


The  Damask  Hose. 

This  is  as  incongruous  a group  as  any.  Blanche  borde  de  rouge 
has  flowers  sometimes  a pure  white,  at  others  margined  with  red. 
Claudine  has  flowers  of  a pale  rose  color.  York  and  Lancaster,  also 
classed  among  them,  has  flowers  striped  with  red  and  white.  Coral ie 
is  flesh  color.  Then  we  have  Madame  Hardy,  which,  we  are  fairly 
told,  “is  not  a pure  Damask  Rose;”  perhaps  not,  as  it  is  white,  and 
unlike  all  the  rest.  Then,  there  is  the  Duke  of  Cambridge,  which  Mr. 


19 


SPECIES  AND  VARIETIES. 

Rivers  “ at  first  thought  a Hybrid  China,”  and  says,  “ will,  perhaps, 
be  better  grouped  with  the  Damask  Roses.” 

Scotch.  Roses. 

So  long  as  this  family  was  allowed  to  be  kept  select,  these  roses 
were  very  distinct ; they  make  long  briery  shoots,  and  flower  with 
small  blooms  almost  like  briers,  the  whole  length  of  stems.  They  are 
exceedingly  pretty,  formed  as  a bank,  or  in  clumps.  They  are  not 
adapted  for  standards.  They  bloom  early,  and  the  Scotch  nurserymen 
now  boast  of  two  or  three  hundred  varieties ; but  like  all  the  other 
families,  there  are  many  among  them  that  have  been  raised  from  seed, 
and  others  imported,  which  are  neither  by  name  nor  nature  Scotch. 
Amiable  etrangere  is  a French  hybrid.  Adelaide  is  a large  Red  Double 
Rose.  La  Cenomane  is  a French  hybrid  with  large  flowers,  “not  so 
robust  as  the  pure  Scotch  varieties.” 

The  Sweet  Brier. 

This  lovely  ornament,  or  rather  tenant  of  the  garden,  is  universally 
admired  for  the  delicious  fragrance  of  its  foliage,  and  for  nothing  else. 
It  is  only  necessary  to  say  here,  that  others  whose  leaves  are  not  fra- 
grant have  been  placed  with  it  to  make  a family ; some  of  the  new 
members  having  but  little  fragrance,  and  one,  the  Scarlet  Sweet  Brier, 
none  at  all. 

The  Austrian  Brier. 

Here  we  have  the  same  evidence  of  indecision  as  to  where  things 
ought  to  be  placed.  In  this  scentless  family  we  have  Williams’  Double 
Yellow  Sweet  Brier.  In  fact,  the  Sweet  Brier  and  the  Austrian  Brier 
are  muddled  together  so  completely  that  catalogues  do  not  agree,  and 
the  further  we  go,  the  more  confusion  we  get  into,  and  more  instances 
occur  of  removal  from  one  division  to  another. 

The  Double  Yellow  Rose 

Here  we  have  only  two  individuals,  the  old  Double  G-olden  Yellow, 
so  beautiful  and  double  as  to  be  universally  admired,  and  the  Jaune, 
a dwarf  kind,  both  shy  bloomers  under  ordinary  management,  or, 


20 


SPECIES  AND  VARIETIES. 


when  we  come  to  the  right  of  it,  never  blooming  well  till  they  are 
matured,  which  takes  some  years.  Of  course,  there  are  many  Double 
Yellow  Roses,  but  only  two  are  admitted  into  this  select  family. 

Climbing  Hoses, 

Here  we  might  expect  to  find  all  those  roses  which,  from  their 
habits,  were  adapted  to  the  fronts  of  houses,  pillars,  trellises,  and  other 
lofty  stations.  One  would,  at  least,  expect  that,  if  Climbing  Roses 
mean  anything,  it  means  all  roses  that  will  climb.  Ho  such  thing. 
Having  pushed,  we  know  not  how'  many  roses  that  climb  into  other 
families,  of  course  they  cannot  be  here.  We  have  various  divisions 
in  this  family  notwithstanding : First,  we  have  the  Ayrshire  Rose, 
which  is  said  to  be  a hybrid,  accompanied  by  several  others  called 
Ayrshire  Roses  also ; next,  we  have  the  second  division,  called  Rosa 
multiflora,  said  to  be  a native  of  Japan,  and  a number  of  companions 
as  unlike  it  as  may  be ; not  that  there  are  any  among  this  family  that 
do  not  climb,  but  there  are  very  many  as  good  Climbing  Roses  shut 
out  from  it. 

The  Queen  of  the  Prairies , or  Michigan  Rose,  is  remarkable  for  its 
perfectly  hardy  growth,  flourishing  equally  well  in  Canada  at  the 
north,  and  in  Texas  at  the  south.  It  grows  with  unparalleled  rapid- 
ity, exceeding  all  other  roses  of  this  family,  covering  an  entire  arbor 
or  an  old  building  in  a short  space  of  time.  It  blooms,  also,  after  other 
summer  roses  are  mostly  goqe,  its  flowers  occurring  in  large  clusters 
of  different  shades. 


Evergreen  Hoses. 

Here  there  can  be  no  mistake : an  Evergreen  Rose  must  be  an 
Evergreen  Rose ; but,  although  we  have  some  enumerated,  there  are 
plenty  of  Evergreen  Roses  not  admitted  into  this  family,  but  pushed 
about  in  all  directions,  some  crammed  into  the  China,  and  some  into 
the  Hybrid  China. 

Boursault  Hoses. 

This  is  said  to  be  “ a most  distinct  group  of  roses,  with  long  red- 
dish flexible  shoots;”  yet  Gracilis  is  affirmed  to  be  “ unlike  the  other 
varieties  of  this  division.”  They  are  said  to  be  good  Climbing  Roses, 
making  ten  feet  of  growth  in  the  season. 


SPECIES  AND  VARIETIES. 


21 


Banksian  Roses. 

The  White  and  Yellow  Banksian  Roses  are  very  beautiful  plants, 
with  small  foliage  and  flowers,  very  graceful,  and  distinct  as  any 
in  cultivation ; yet  we  have  a rose-colored  hybrid  introduced  with 
them ; a plant  acknowledged  to  partake  “ as  much  of  the  character 
of  the  Boursault  Rose,  as  of  the  Banksian.” 


Hybrid  Climbing  Roses. 

These,  one  would  think,  are  neither  Climbing  nor  Dwarf,  but  be- 
tween both.  Not  so,  however ; because  Rosa  craculum  makes  shoots 
from  ten  to  fifteen  feet  in  a season.  Madame  d’Arblay,  or  Well’s 
White,  has  been  formerly  placed  among  the  Evergreen  Roses ; but 
whether  she  misbehaved  herself  there,  or  was  a great  favorite  here,  is 
of  no  consequence.  She  was  removed  from  that  family  to  this.  We 
are,  however,  informed,  with  regard  to  her  sojourn  among  the  family 
of  Evergreens,  and  subsequent  removal,  that  her  “habit  is  so  different 
and  her  origin  so  well  ascertained,  that  Mr.  Rivers  removed  her  to  the 
present  family.” 


Perpetual  Roses. 

These,  if  the  rose  gentlemen  would  stick  to  the  character,  would 
be  very  easily  defined — roses  which  have  a complete  season  of  bloom ; 
which  go  off  but  a short  time ; make  a fresh  season  of  bloom,  and  so 
on.  Not  like  the  China  Roses,  always  “ growing  and  blooming,”  but 
fairly  making  different  seasons  of  bloom,  as  complete  as  if  a winter 
intervened. 

The  Bourbon  Rose. 

The  original  Bourbon  Rose  was  a hybrid  between  the  Common 
China  and  the  Red  Four  Seasons.  Of  course,  this  was  quite  enough 
reason  for  rose  growers  to  add  to  the  family  all  that  were  something 
like  it,  and  others  that  were  nothing  like  it.  Here  let  Mr.  Rivers 
speak:  “Diaphane  is  a small  high-colored  Rose,  almost  scarlet.  This 
is  not  a true  Bovu’bon.”  The  fact  is,  there  is  nothing  like  the  Bourbon 
Rose  about  it.  Here  we  have  also  Gloire  de  Rosamene,  unlike  the 
Bourbon  Rose  in  everything.  It  is  a robust  Climbing  Rose,  of  which 


22 


SPECIES  AND  VARIETIES. 


even  Mr.  Rivers  himself  says,  “ As  a Pillar  Rose,  it  will  form  a splendid 
object.”  The  White  Bourbon,  which  the  French  cultivators  are  at 
war  about,  “ some  swearing,”  as  Mr.  Rivers  tells  us,  u by  all  their 
saints  that  it  is  a veritable  Bourbon,  while  others  as  strongly  maintain 
that  it  is  a Noisette ;”  and  from  its  clustered  flowers  the  latter  are 
nearest  right.  But  all  this  arises  from  the  multiplication  of  families, 

China  Boses. 

Everybody  knows  the  Pale  China  and  the  Dark  China  Roses,  which 
may  be  seen  decorating  the  cottages  of  our  industrious  classes  as  well 
as  the  gardens  of  the  rich.  They  were,  however,  Bengal  Roses,  and 
not  natives  of  China.  Now  the  distinguishing  characteristic  of  the 
Bengal,  or,  as  now  called,  China  Rose,  is  smooth  bark,  with  the  thorns 
distant  from  each  other;  shining  leaves,  and  constant  growing  and 
blooming.  These  features  could  be  well  understood  by  everybody ; 
but  everything  that  can  be  at  all  traced  to  have  any  one  of  these  fea- 
tures, and  cannot  be  easily  placed  in  other  families,  must  come  to  this ; 
and  so  we  have  plenty,  and  a most  beautiful  family  it  is. 

Tea-scented  China  Boses. 

This  is  an  acknowledged  variation  of  the  Bengal,  or,  as  the  rose 
dealers  will  have  it,  China  Rose  ; but  it  is  a true  China,  imported  into 
England  from  that  empire  in  1810.  It  is  said  to  have  been  the  parent 
of  this  large  family ; but  here  we  have  the  same  difficulty  that  pre- 
sents itself  in  other  families — there  is  no  place  to  draw  the  line ; they 
are  China  Roses,  and  only  China  Roses,  but  they  are  stronger  scented 
than  the  Bengal,  called  Common  China,  and  it  is  difficult  to  detect  the 
difference  between  the  highest  perfumed  of  the  former  class  and  the 
lowest  perfumed  of  the  China  Tea  Roses,  as  now  classed. 

Miniature  Boses. 

This  family  is  also  said  to  be  China,  possessing  all  the  marked  fea- 
tures ; but  it  is  smaller  than  the  others,  and  is  acknowledged  by  Mr. 
Rivers  to  be  only  a dwarf  variety  of  the  Common  China,  or,  as  we 
insist,  Bengal.  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  all  those  so-called  China 
Boses  have  the  characteristics  we  have  mentioned,  the  constant  grow- 


SPECIES  AND  VARIETIES. 


23 


ing  and  blooming,  if  kept  in  order  under  proper  protection ; and  are 
not  deciduous. 


The  Noisette  Rose. 

The  distinguishing  character  of  this  Rose  is  that  it  flowers  in 
bunches,  and  this  ought  to  be  the  character  of  every  one  added  to  the 
family.  But  here  we  have  Lamarque,  which  is  anything  but  a Noi- 
sette ; it  does  not  flower  in  bunches,  unless  every  Rose  which  has  two 
or  three  flowers  on  a stem  is  to  be  called  Noisette ; and  Smith’s  Yel- 
low Noisette  is  about  as  much  entitled  to  the  name  of  Lamarque.  But 
they  are  not  alone;  too  many  which  have  no  claim  on  the  family  have 
nevertheless  been  forced  on  them. 

The  Mush  Rose. 

This  is  an  old  favorite,  and  many  which  have  been  supposed  to 
come  from  its  seed  are  fastened  on  it  as  a family,  and  many  not  very 
like  the  parent.  The  family,  like  some  of  the  others,  is  greatly  con- 
fused, and  there  is  nothing  so  distinct  as  to  connect  it  as  a separate 
class. 


The  Macartney  Rose. 

The  characteristic  of  this  Rose  is  its  very  bright  thick  evergreen 
foliage,  and  therefore  any  other  Hybrid  Rqses  which  have  that  char- 
acteristic might,  according  to  other  classifications,  be  put  among 
these.  Maria  Leonida-  is  perhaps  the  best  of  them  ; Rosa  berberifolia 
hardii,  of  whose  origin  Mr.  Rivers  makes  a sad  muddle,  is  classed  with 
this  family.  Mr.  Rivers’  story  is,  that  “ Rosa  hardii  was  raised  from 
seed  by  Mons.  Hardy,  of  the  Luxembourg  Gardens,  from  Rosa  involu- 
cre, a variety  of  Rosa  bracteata,  fertilised  with  that  unique  rose,  Rosa 
berberifolia  which  was  very  frequently  exported  from  Persia,  and  comes 
always  true  to  the  parent ; some  of  the  Persian  seed  was  sent  to 
Mons.  Hardy,  and  from  that  he,  like  others,  raised  the  true  Rosa  ber- 
berifolia, which  Mr.  Lee,  of  the  Hammersmith  Nursery,  raised  from 
Persian  seed  likewise,  more  than  twenty  years  before  Mr.  Hardy  was 
a rose  raiser  at  all.”  Well  may  Mr.  Rivers  say,  in  continuation,  “This 
curious  hybrid,  like  its  Persian  parent,  has  single  yellow  flowers,  with 
a dark  eye,  and  evergreen  foliage.”  The  fertilising  part  of  the  busi- 


$4 


SPECIES  AND  VARIETIES. 


ness  is  the  mere  work  of  a fertile  imagination.  When  any  one  has 
got  Rosa  berberifolia,  he  need  not  trouble  himself  about  whether  he 
has  it  from  the  seed  raised  by  Mons.  Hardy,  or  the  seed  raised  by  hie 
predecessors.  There  is  no  more  variation,  and  no  more  hybrid  about 
either,  than  there  is  in  two  plants  of  small  salad. 

Rosa  Microphylla. 

This,  we  are  told,  is  nearly  allied  to  the  Macartney  Rose ; so  are 
the  varieties  of  it,  and  ought  not  to  have  been  separated. 


Qu*kn  (Rosa  ‘bouiTDoniana). 


SPECIES  AND  VARIETIES. 


25 


Jausts  Desprez  (Yellow  Hose) 


20 


SPECIES  AND  VARIETIES. 


Tbllow  Bankston  Robs  (Rosa  "banksia  lutes 


SPECIES  AND  VARIETIES, 


27 


Small  Leafletted  Bose  (Bosa  micropbylla). 


28 


SPECIES  AND  VARIETIES. 


Buegundt  Bosh  (Boa*  gallic*!. 


SPECIES  AND  VARIETIES. 


29 


The  Village  Maid  (La  Belle  Village  ois®): 


30 


SPECIES  AND  VARIETIES 


Williams  Double  ITellqw  Sweet  Bkzx. 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  A FINE  ROSE. 


31 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  A FINE  ROSE. 

There  is  no  flower  more  difficult  to  define  than  the  Rose,  and  the 
difficulty  arises  out  of  several  curious  facts.  First,  it  is  the  only  flower 
that  is  beautiful  in  all  its  stages — from  the  instant  the  calyx  bursts  and 
shows  a streak  of  the  corolla,  till  it  is  in  full  bloom.  Secondly,  it  is 
the  only  one  that  is  really  rich  in  its  confusion,  or  that  is  not  the  less 
elegant  for  the  total  absence  of  all  uniformity  and  order.  The  very 
fact  of  its  being  beautiful  from  the  moment  the  calyx  bursts,  makes 
the  single  and  semi-double  roses,  up  to  a certain  stage,  as  good  as 
the  perfectly  double  ones;  and  there  is  yet  another  point  in  the  forma- 
tion of  some  varieties,  which  makes  them  lose  their  beauty  when  they 
are  full  blown.  For  instance,  the  Moss  Rose  is  a magnificent  object 
so  long  as  the  calyx  is  all  seen,  but  so  soon  as  the  flower  fully  expands, 
all  the  distinction  between  a Moss  Rose  and  a common  one  has  de- 
parted, or  is  concealed.  This  brings  us  at  once  to  an  acknowledg- 
ment that  the  grand  characteristic  of  a Moss  Rose  is  its  calyx.  These 
properties  must  never  be  estimated  by  full-blown  flowers,  and  there- 
( fore,  all  varieties  of  Moss  Roses  must  be  exhibited  before  they  expand 
enough  to  hide  the  calyx. 

There  are  some  properties,  however,  which  apply  to  all  roses,  what- 
ever be  their  characteristics  in  other  respects,  and,  therefore,  must  be 
taken  as  an  estimable  point  in  the  construction  of  a flower. 

1.  The  petals  should  be  thick,  broad,  and  smooth  at  the  edges. 

Whether  this  be  for  a Moss,  which  is  never  to  be  shown  fully 

opened,  or  the  florist’s  favorite,  which  is  to  be  shown  as  a dahlia,  this 
property  is  equally  valuable,  be  use  the  thicker  the  petal,  the  longer 
it  is  opening,  and  the  longer  does  it  continue  in  perfection,  when  it  is 
opened.  There  is  another  essential  point  gained  in  thick-petalled 
flowers : The  thicker  the  petal,  the  more  dense  and  decided  the  shade 
or  color,  or  the  more  pure  a white,  while  the  most  brilliant  scarlet 
would  look  tame  and  watery  if  the  petal  were  thin,  transparent,  and 
flimsy.  Hence,  many  semi-double  varieties,  with  these  petals,  look 
bright  enough  while  the  petals  are  crowded  in  the  bud,  but  are  watery 
and  tame  when  opened,  and  dependent  on  their  single  thickness. 

2.  The  flower  should  be  highly  perfumed,  or,  as  the  dealers  call  it, 
fragrant. 


32 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  A FINE  ROSE. 


Whether  this  is  to  climb  the  front  of  a house,  bloom  on  the  ground, 
or  mount  poles  or  other  devices,  fragrance  is  one  of  the  great  charms 
which  place  the  Rose  on  the  throne  of  the  garden  as  the  Queen  of 
Flowers. 

3.  The  flower  should  be  double  to  the  centre,  high  on  the  crown, 
round  in  the  outline,  and  regular  in  the  disposition  of  the  petals. 

This  would  seem  to  be  a little  contradictory,  after  saying,  that  in  a 
Moss  Rose,  the  full-blown  flower  cannot  be  allowed,  because'  it  con- 
ceals the  grand  characteristic  of  the  plant.  But  it  is  not  contradictory, 
because  we  defend  it  on  grounds  which  render  doubleness  equally 
valuable  to  the  Moss  family,  which  should  not  be  shown  in  full  bloom, 
as  to  those  which  are  so  exhibited.  The  more  double  the  flower,  even 
when  amounting  to  confusion,  the  more  full  and  beautiful  the  bud  in 
all  its  stages.  Those  who  have  noticed  the  single  and  semi-double 
Moss  Roses  will  remember  that  the  buds  are  thin  and  pointed,  and 
starved-looking  affairs,  while  the  old  common  Moss  Rose,  which  is 
large  and  double  as  the  Cabbage  Rose,  is  bold,  full,  rich,  and  effective, 
from  the  instant  the  calyx  bursts.  At  this  point,  we  shall  have  to 
branch  off  and  take  families;  perhaps  the  Moss  Rose  family  is  the  best 
to  commence  with.  Those  who  now  follow  through  the  different 
species  or  varieties,  will  find  the  first  three  rules  are  essential  to  all, 
and  are  therefore  repeated  with  each  division. 


Properties  )f  Moss  Hoses. 

1.  The  petals  should  be  thick,  broad,  and  smooth  at  the  edges. 

2.  The  flower  should  be  highly  perfumed,  or,  as  the  dealers  call  it, 
fragrant. 

3.  The  flower  should  be  double  to  the  centre,  high  on  the  crown, 
round  in  the  outline,  and  regular  in  the  disposition  of  the  petals. 

4.  The  quantity  of  moss,  the  length  of  the  spines,  or  prickles,  which 
form  it,  and  its  thickness,  or  closeness,  on  the  stems,  leaves,  and  calyx, 
cannot  be  too  great. 

This  being  the  distinguishing  characteristic  of  Moss  Roses,  the 
more  strongly  it  is  developed  the  better. 

5.  The  length  of  the  divisions  of  the  calyx,  and  the  ramifications 
at  the  end,  cannot  be  too  great.  As  the  entire  beauty  is  in  the  unde- 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  A FINE  ROSE. 


33 


veloped  bud,  the  more  the  calyx  projects  beyond  the  opening  flower, 
or  rather  the  more  space  it  covers,  the  better. 

6.  The  plant  should  be  bushy,  the  foliage  strong,  the  flowers  abun- 
dant and  not  crowded,  and  the  bloom  well  out  of  the  foliage. 


Diagram  op  a Fins  Double  Hose. 


7.  The  color  should  be  bright  or  dense,  as  the  case  may  be,  and  if 
the  color  or  shade  be  new,  it  will  be  more  valuable ; and  the  color 
must  be  the  same  at  the  back  as  the  front  of  the  petals. 

These  seven  properties  would  constitute  a Moss  Rose  a valuable 
acquisition,  and  probably,  at  present,  the  greatest  acquisition  would 
be  a yellow  one. 

8.  The  stem  should  be  strong  and  elastic,  the  footstalks  stiff,  so  as 
to  hold  the  flower  well  up  to  view. 

2* 


CHARACTERISTICS  OP  A FINE  ROSE. 


34 


Properties  of  Hoses  for  Stands,  showing  the  Single  Bloom 
like  Dahlias. 

1.  The  petals  should  be  thick,  broad,  and  smooth  at  the  edges. 

2.  The  flower  should  be  highly  perfumed,  or,  as  the  dealers  call  it, 
fragrant. 

3.  The  flower  should  be  double  t<  the  centre,  high  on  the  crown, 
round  in  the  outline,  and  regular  in  the  disposition  of  the  petals. 

4.  The  petals  should  be  imbricated,  and  in  distinct  rows,  whether 
they  be  reflexed,  like  some  of  the  velvety  Tuscan  kind,  or  cupped  like 
a ranunculus ; and  the  petals  to  the  centre  should  continue  the  same 
form,  and  only  be  reduced  in  size. 

5.  The  color  should  be  distinct  and  new,  and  stand  fast  against  the 
sun  and  air,  till  the  bloom  fail. 

6.  The  stem  should  be  strong,  the  footstalk  stiff  and  elastic ; the 
blooms  well  out  beyond  the  foliage,  and  not  in  each  other’s  way. 

The  very  worst  habit  a Rose  can  have,  is  that  of  throwing  up  sev- 
eral blooms  close  together,  on  short  stiff  footstalks,  some  of  which 
must  be  cut  away  before  the  others  can  be  fully  developed ; as  show 
flowers,  they  are  bad,  and  as  plants,  they  are  very  untidy.  The  side 
buds  prevent  the  centre  flowers  from  opening  circularly,  and  when 
the  first  beauty  is  off,  they  exhibit  dead  roses  held  fast  between  two 
living  ones. 

Properties  of  Noisette  Hoses. 

However  singularly  some  catalogues  class  these  varieties,  we  intend, 
by  this  name,  to  distinguish  those  roses  which  bloom  in  clusters. 

1.  The  petals  should  be  thick,  broad,  and  smooth  at  the  edges. 

2.  The  flower  should  be  highly  perfumed,  or,  as  the  dealers  call  it, 
fragrant. 

3.  The  flower  should  be  double  to  the  centre,  high  on  the  crown, 
round  in  the  outline,  and  regular  in  the  disposition  of  the  petals. 

4.  The  cluster  should  be  sufficiently  open  to  enable  all  the  flowers 
to  bloom  freely,  and  the  stems  and  footstalks  should  be  firm  and 
elastic,  to  hold  the  flower  face  upward,  or  face  outward,  and  not 
bang  down,  and  show  the  outside,  instead  of  the  inside  of  the  blooms. 

The  bloom  should  be  abundant  at  the  end  of  every  shoot. 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  A FINE  ROSE. 


35 


6.  The  blooming  shoots  should  not  exceed  twelve  inches  before 
they  flower. 

7.  The  bloom  should  stand  out  beyond  the  foliage,  and  the  plant 
should  be  compact  and  bushy. 

We  now  proceed  to  a family  which  we  shall  designate  Climbing 
Roses,  and  which  comprise  blooms  of  the  Noisette  kind,  that  is,  in 
bunches ; blooms  which  come  singly,  large  and  small ; flowers  early 
and  late ; and,  in  fact,  which  comprise  all  sorts  of  roses  that  grow  tall 
enough  for  training. 

Properties  of  Climbing  Hoses. 

1.  The  petals  should  be  thick,  broad,  and  smooth  at  the  edges,  with 
the  outer  ones  curving  slightly  inwards. 

2.  The  flower  should  be  highly  perfumed,  or,  as  the  dealers  call  it, 
fragrant. 

3.  The  flower  should  be  double  to  the  centre,  high  on  the  crown, 
round  in  the  outline,  and  regular  in  the  disposition  of  the  petals. 

4.  The  joints  should  be  short  from  leaf  to  leaf.  The  blooms  should 
come  on  very  short  branches,  and  all  up  the  main  shoots.  The  plant 
should  be  always  growing  and  developing  its  flowers,  from  spring  to 
autumn,  and  the  foliage  should  completely  hide  all  the  stems,  whether 
the  plan  be  on  front  of  a house  or  on  any  given  device. 

Concluding  Remarks. 

Having  now  travelled  through  the  chief  of  the  families,  which 
require  separate  notices  of  their  properties,  the  first  three  properties 
numbered  being  required  in  all  of  them,  we  add,  by  way  of  a finish 
for  all,  except  Moss  Roses,  that 

The  foliage  should  be  bright  green  and  shining,  and,  though  not 
likely  to  be  found  in  many  varieties,  it  should  be  permanent,  and  con- 
stitute an  evergreen. 

By  this,  we  mainly  establish  a point  in  favor  of  an  evergreen.  We 
mention  nothing  about  size,  because  size  forms  the  distinction  between 
many  roses  which  have  no  other  difference,  and  has  littieftor  nothing 
to  do  with  the  properties  of  the  Rose,  except  uniformity  in  the  same 
variety. 


PROPER  SOIL  FOR  THE  ROSE. 


36 


PROPER  SOIL  FOR  THE  ROSE. 

The  proper  soil  for  the  Rose  is  strong  rich  loam,  and  well  decom- 
posed vegetable  mould,  cow  dung,  or  horse  dung;  but  as  we  are 
too  often  already  provided  with  the  kind  of  soil  we  are  obliged  to  use, 
and  the  gardens  and  situations  for  our  roses  are  generally  ready 
made,  all  we  can  do  is  to  modify  and  supply  the  deficiency,  if  any, 
as  well  as  we  can.  If  the  soil  be  light,  holes  must  be  dug,  and  loam 
and  dung  forked  in  at  the  bottom  of  the  hole,  as  well  as  the  hole  be 
filled  up  with  the  same  mixture;  for  troublesome  as  this  may  be,  it  is 
the  only  way  to  secure  a good  growth  and  bloom,  and  it  is  next  to 
useless  to  plant  roses  in  poor  light  soil  without  this  precaution. 
Kitchen  gardens  well  kept  up,  will  always  grow  the  Rose  well,  and 
unless  the  soil  be  very  poor  and  very  light,  a good  spadeful  of  rotten 
dung,  mixed  with  the  soil  where  the  Rose  is  planted,  will  answer  all 
the  purpose.  Among  the  evils  of  poor  soil  for  the  Rose,  it  is  not  the 
least,  that  it  frequently  makes  the  flower  that  would  otherwise  be 
double  come  single  or  semi-double,  so  as  to  destroy  all  identity  of  the 
variety  by  its  bloom ; and  although  many  thousands  of  roses  of  no 
value  have  been  sent  out,  many  others  -which  did  not  deserve  it  have 
been  condemned,  because  the  party  who  was  growing  them  knew 
nothing  about  their  cultivation,  and  starved  them  into  a false  charac- 
ter. As  it  is  difficult,  however,  to  give  the  Rose  too  rich  a soil,  it 
may  be  as  well,  even  if  you  think  it  good  enough,  to  work  in  a spade- 
ful of  dung  with  it ; for  it  will  do  no  harm,  even  if  the  state  of  the 
ground  be  ever  so  good.  We  have  no  doubt  that  the  Rose  would 
flourish  in  rotten  turf,  and  when  they  are  to  be  grown  in  pots,  it  is 
practicable  to  give  them  this  invaluable  stuff  to  grow  in ; but  unless 
it  be  a recently  turned-up  pasture,  there  is  nothing  approximating  to 
it  out  of  doors,  and  even  this  is  far  less  supplied  with  the  rotted  grass, 
than  when  turfs  are  cut  thin  to  rot  for  use.  As  a general  principle, 
then,  it  may  be  laid  down  that  the  Rose  requires  rich  soil ; and  that  if 
you  have  it  not,  you  must  change  the  nature  of  what  you  have,  by 
means  of  dung,  or  loam,  or  both. 


MANURES — PLANTING  OF  THE  ROSE, 


37 


MANURES  FOR  THE  ROSE. 

One  of  the  best  manures  for  the  rose  is  a mixture  of  one  part  of 
Peruvian  guano,  three  parts  charred  turf  and  earth,  and  six  parts  of 
cow  dung.  A thin  dressing  of  this  should  be  pointed  in  with  a trowel 
every  spring. 

Roses  may  also  be  watered  at  any  period  of  their  growth  with  a 
mixture  of  one  fourth  of  a pound  of  Peruvian  guano  and  eight  gallons 
of  water,  to  be  applied  with  a watering  pot  in  the  evening  or  on  a 
cloudy  day. 


PLANTING  OF  THE  ROSE. 

To  plant  the  rose  properly,  the  root  must  first  be  examined,  and 
every  particle  of  it  that  has  been  bruised  should  be  cut  off  with  a 
sharp  knife  just  above  the  bruise;  all  the  torn  and  ragged  ends  should 
be  made  smooth,  and  cut  away  as  far  as  they  are  split  or  damaged. 
If  any  root  has  been  growing  downward,  it  should  be  shortened  up  ; 
for  it  is  better  to  discourage  any  from  growing  downright.  This 
preparation  being  made,  and  the  holes  dug  large  enough  to  take  the 
root  in  without  cramping  it,  fork  or  dig  up  the  bottom  of  the  hole  to 
loosen  it,  and,  if  necessary  to  make  any  addition  to  the  present  soil, 
to  mix  it  properly  with  the  soil  taken  out,  and  work  it  some  way 
into  the  soil  at  the  bottom.  Let  one  hold  the  tree  or  plant,  if  it  be  too 
large  to  manage  properly  alone,  and  the  other  throw  in  the  soil  be- 
tween the  roots.  By  moving  the  stem  backward  and  forward,  and 
pulling  upward  a little,  it  is  easy  to  work  the  soil  well  between  the 
roots,  and  on  this  much  depends.  When  it  is  adjusted,  the  top  of  the 
root  must  be  pretty  close  to  the  top  of  the  ground ; there  must  be 
none  of  the  stump  or  stem  buried ; and  when  trodden  down,  the  root 
must  be  fixed  steady  and  solid.  If  you  have  to  manage  the  planting 
by  yourself,  you  must,  as  soon  as  the  hole  is  prepared,  lay  hold  of  the 
stem  just  above  the  root,  and  return  the  soil  with  your  other  hand, 
continuing  to  move  the  head  first  one  way  and  then  the  other,  until 


38 


PLANTING  OF  THE  ROSE. 


tlie  soil  has  worked  well  between  the  roots,  when  it  may  be  trodden 
in  as  mentioned  before. 

Dwarf  plants  there  is  no  difficulty  in  planting,  but  you  must  be 
careful  to  keep  the  crown  of  the  root  near  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
the  treading  in  of  all  fair  and  solid  being  a necessary  operation  with  all 
the  kinds  of  plants.  With  the  standard  sorts  you  should  drive  stakes 
into  the  ground  pretty  firmly,  and  fasten  the  stems  of  the  roses  to 
them,  to  prevent  the  wind  from  removing  them;  as  when  your  roots 
have  been  once  firmly  trodden  in,  you  cannot  move  a tree  one  way 
nor  the  other  without  breaking  the  fine  fibres,  and  thus  lessening  the 
capacity  of  the  root  to  carry  strength  to  the  head.  If  you  are  plant- 
ing a group  of  standard  roses,  you  should  place  the  highest  in  the  cen- 
tre, and  the  lower  ones  nearer  the  outside*;  in  fact,  a handsome  clump 
of  roses  might  have  six-foot  standards  in  the  middle,  four  feet  six  inches 
in  the  next  row,  three-foot  ones  nearer  the  front,  and  eighteen-inch 
ones  outside ; these,  if  at  proper  distances,  and  with  picked  sorts,  of 
something  near  the  same  habit  of  growth,  will  form  a superb  mountain 
of  roses  in  the  proper  season. 

Rows  of  Standard  Roses  may  be  planted  with  advantage  on  each 
side  of  a coach  road,  in  a park,  or  on  both  sides  of  a path  on  a lawn, 
but  at  proper  distances,  so  that  each  shall  form  a specific  object  in 
itself,  as  well  as  a portion  of  a row  of  rose  trees.  Roses  also  form  very 
beautiful  objects  planted  in  isolated  situations  on  lawns,  and  especially 
when  the  sort  of  rose  is  distinct  from  others,  or  blooms  at  different 
periods;  for  whatever  forms  a portion  should  be  of  a similar  habit  to 
the  rest  of  the  whole.  Thus,  if  a particular  walk  in  a garden  or  shrub- 
bery were  bounded  by  two  rows  of  roses,  they  should  all  flower  at 
once.  If  a clump  of  roses  is  planted,  they  should  flower  at  one  season. 
A mixture  of  spring,  summer,  and  autumn  roses  would  be  very  bad ; 
the  place  never  looks  right ; therefore  some  pains  must  be  taken  to 
keep  all  those  which  flower  at  the  same  period  of  the  year  together. 
One  portion  of  the  garden  may  then  be  always  garnished  with  ro&es, 
and  it  is  far  better  than  having  them  straggling  about,  with  here  and 
there  a flowerless  one  among  those  in  bloom,  or  a blooming  one  among 
those  not  in  flower. 

Planting  of  roses  which  are  on  their  own  bottoms,  or  worked  low 
down  for  dwarfs,  or  for  climbers  where  flowering  wood  is  always 
wanted  from  the  ground,  differs  in  nowise  from  any  other  planting 


POTTING  OP  ROSES. 


39 


except  as  co  the  situation,  which  should  be  chosen  not  too  much 
exposed  to  the  wind,  as  in  the  most  sheltered  spot  they  always  have 
enough  to  encounter.  They  must  be  planted  firmly,  and  in  good 
soil : and  whatever  they  have  to  climb  up  should  be  firmly  placed  by 
rights  before  they  are  planted,  but  certainly  before  they  shall  have 
grown  much,  as  the  roots  spread  a good  deal,  and  if  damaged  by  vio- 
lence after  they  have  begun  to  grow  vigorously,  they  will  receive  a 
check  which  they  may  not  get  over  the  same  season. 


POTTING-  OF  HOSES. 

To  the  cultivators  of  the  Rose,  any  improvement  in  pots  is  of  im- 
portance. Those  designed  to  grace  a hall  or  a window  of  a dwelling, 
may  be  made  in  fine  stone  and  earthenware  of  various  patterns,  and 
should  be  so  constructed  as  to  possess  advantages  over  the  common 
old  red  porous  ones  made  of  clay.  One  reason  why  plants  potted  the 
usual  way  do  not  flourish  well  in  the  house  during  the  winter  season 
is,  the  proper  want  of  leakage,  or  drainage,  and  a due  circulation  of 
air  about  their  roots,  in  consequence  of  the 
close  connection  between  the  bottom  of  the 
pot  and  the  shelf  or  bench  on  which  it  rests. 

Mr.  M’lntosh,  gardener  of  the  Duke  of 
Buccleuch,  has  obviated  the  above-named  ob- 
jection by  making  pots  with  feet,  as  denoted 
in  the  adjoining  cut.  By  this  means,  the  plants  get  rid  of  their  mois- 
ture, and  freely  receive  air  about  their  roots  through  the  hole  in  the 
bottom  of  the  pot. 

Potting  Deciduous  Roses  for  Forcing. 

The  nearer  you  can  imitate  planting  in  the  open  ground  the  bet- 
ter. The  soil  should  be  the  same  or  richer,  with  dung  chiefly, 
because  you  cannot  water  soil  without  washing  away,  in  some  meas- 
ure, whatever  it  is  impregnated  with,  that  is  soluble.  By  a parity  of 
reasoning,  you  cannot  moisten  with  water  impregnated  with  anything, 
without  imparting  the  virtue  or  mischief  of  the  solution  to  the  soil 


40 


POTTING  OF  ROSES. 


It  is  the  best  way  to  use  half  of  rotted  turf  and  half  of  rotted  dung ; 
if  it  be  not  too  light  to  let  water  pass  freely,  add  a little  turfy  peat, 
broken  through  a sieve  that  would  pass  a hazel  nut.  Trim  the  roots, 
to  get  rid  of  all  bruises ; and,  in  the  first  instance,  choose  plants,  the 
roots  of  which  are  within  a moderate  compass,  for  pot  culture,  and 
are  well  taken  up.  Select  pots  that  will  receive  the  roots  without 
much  cramping;  carefully  put  the  soil  between  and  among  the  fibres 
and  larger  roots ; strike  the  pots  on  the  potting  table,  and  poke  the 
soil  down  so  as  to  be  firm. 

If  the  roses  be  dwarf,  follow  the  directions  about  pruning  at  once, 
and  let  them  be  placed  in  a cold  frame,  watered,  to  settle  the  earth 
about  them,  and  covered  up.  This  should  be  done  in  the  Southern 
and  Middle  States  from  November  to  February,  when  those  for  forc- 
ing should  be  put  into  the  greenhouse,  gently  increased  in  tempera- 
ture, well  watered,  and  kept  growing  hard ; any  buds  that  show 
should  be  removed,  and  they  should  be  allowed  to  complete  their 
growth,  and  then  be  plunged  in  the  open  ground,  and  there  the  wood 
be  permitted  to  ripen.  When  the  leaves  have  fallen,  and  the  wood  is 
fairly  ripe,  they  may  be  pruned,  by  removing  all  the  weak  shoots,  and 
shortening  the  strong  ones ; the  balls  turned  out  to  examine,  and  if 
matted  with  roots,  pots  a size  larger  be  given.  They  may  then  be 
placed  in  a cold  frame,  plunged  to  their  rims,  until  the  period  you 
want  to  force  them.  They  will  flower  better  the  second  year  than 
they  could  have  flowered  the  first,  and  if  the  blooms  are  all  picked 
off  again  as  fast  as  they  show,  instead  of  being  allowed  to  perfect 
themselves,  the  growth  will  be  more  free ; and  by  growing  hard  to 
complete  it  early,  and  leaving  them  out  again  to  ripen,  they  will  allow 
of  being  pruned  into  a handsome  form,  being  carried  into  the  house 
sooner,  and  will  flower  most  abundantly,  instead  of  having  one  or  two 
sickly  shoots  with  their  miserable  half-starved  blooms.  At  the  end, 
they  will  have  as  many  as  you  please  to  leave  eyes  for,  pruning  them 
the  same  as  you  would  standards  or  bushes  out  of  doors,  and  the 
blooms  will  come  as  rich,  as  handsome,  and  as  well  colored  as  any  iu 
the  open  air.  Roses  may  then  be  forced  at  almost  any  season,  only 
they  ought  to  undergo  the  same  forcing  a season  or  two  without 
being  allowed  to  flower,  that  they  undergo  the  season  they  are  to  be 
forced  into  bloom.  And  this  will  answer  season  after  season  when 
they  are  once  well  established,  for  they  require  only  the  usual  shifts 


POTTING  CF  ROSES. 


41 


of  plants,  which  have  their  balls  matted  with  root ; but  of  the  forcing, 
more  hereafter. 

i 

Potting  for  Show. 

As  it  is  at  length  the  fashion  to  show  roses  in  pots,  the  only  proper 
plan  of  showing  any  but  single  blooms,  face  upward,  the  plan  of  pot- 
ting cannot  differ  from  those  potted  for  forcing.  Presuming  that  if 
they  are  late  roses  and  require  forcing,  they  will  be  treated  after  the 
plan  above  mentioned,  so  far  as  the  potting  is  concerned,  the  differ- 
ence between  what  the  perfectly  hardy  and  summer  or  autumn  bloom- 
ing roses  will  require  after  potting,  as  we  have  directed,  is  to  be  put- 
out  in  an  open  situation ; and  if  standards,  they  should  be  fastened 
to  a railing,  or  trellis,  as  well  as  being  plunged  in  their  pots,  that  the 
wind  may  not  disturb  them.  Here  they  may  be  protected  various 
ways : a mat  thrown  over  the  head  of  a rose  protected  it,  though  not 
a very  hardy  one,  against  the  last  winter’s  frost.  A wisp  of  straw 
tied  at  one  end,  and  opened  cap-like  over  each  and  among  the  branches 
of  roses,  protected  them  a good  deal,  and  probably,  had  they  not  been 
autumn  pruned,  might  have  protected  them  entirely  from  mischief, 
but  as  it  was,  some  of  the  pruned  branches  died  back,  though  the 
unpruned  ones  did  not. 


Potting  tlie  Small,  the  Smooth  Wooden,  and  Chinese  Varieties. 

Here,  from  the  first,  the  soil  should  be  one  third  rotted  dung,  one 
third  peat,  and  one  third  the  loam  of  rotten  turf.  In  this  stuff,  the 
most  delicate  will  succeed.  From  the  period  of  their  having  struck 
root,  they  can  hardly  do  wrong  if  potted  in  this  soil,  in  a proper-sized 
pot,  with  ordinary  drainage.  Small  plants  should  be  placed  in  pots 
no  larger  than  the  roots  require  to  hold  them,  with  a moderate  share 
of  earth  to  live  in.  This  kind  of  rose  should  be  kept  growing  in  a 
cool  frame  or  greenhouse,  or  pit,  with  not  much  moisture;  plenty  of 
air  in  dry  mild  days,  and  a refreshing  shower  when  it  is  warm.  It  is 
safer  to  plunge  them  in  ashes,  if  you  can,  up  to  the  rims  of  their  pots : 
it  keeps  them  moist  longer  than  if  the  pot  is  exposed,  it  mostly  does, 
in  bad  weather ; and  though  it  perhaps  does  not  kill  them,  it  makes 
them  weakly  for  some  time:  In  this  way,  they  may  grow  from  time 
to  time,  and  be  shifted  from  one  sized  pot  to  another,  requiring  only 


42 


FORCING  OF  EARLY  ROSES. 


that  the  buds  should  be  plucked  off  directly  they  show,  sc  .ong  as  the 
plant  is  wanted  to  grow  fast. 


FORCING  OF  EARLY  ROSES. 

This  art  consists  in  bringing  the  Rose,  by  degrees,  out  of  its  season, 
as  we  have  half  explained  under  the  head  of  u Potting  for  Forcing.” 
We  know  that  a Rose  can  be  potted  in  January,  and  made  to  produce 
flowers  'in  May ; but  those  who  wish  to  force  should  know  the  best 
way. 

A Rose,  then,  for  early  forcing,  requires  three  seasons  to  be  per- 
fect. The  first  season,  it  should  be  put  into  a greenhouse,  and 
from  thence  into  the  stove,  as  early  as  November.  It  is  sure  to  grow, 
no  matter  what  sort  it  is ; and  let  it  grow  its  best,  but  pluck  off  the 
buds  if  it  have  any,  yet  it  should  not  be  drawn ; this  can  be  managed 
two  or  three  ways,  but  it  requires,  to  prevent  drawing,  light  and  air. 
These  will  have  grown  pretty  well  as  large  as  they  can  grow,  by  the 
time  they  may  be  turned  out  and  plunged  in  the  open  air.  The  wood 
will  ripen  well  in  the  summer  time ; and  in  October,  re-pot  them  into 
a size  larger  pots ; prune  them  by  taking  off  all  the  weak  shoots,  and 
all  the  least  valuable  of  those  in  each  other’s  way ; shorten  the  best 
wood  to  two  or  three  eyes,  thinning  the  inner  branches  all  that  may  be 
necessary  to  give  air,  light  and  freedom  to  the  new  wood.  Take  them 
into  the  greenhouse,  thence,  soon,  into  the  stove.  Let  the  bloom 
buds,  as  they  appear,  be  plucked  off,  and  the  growth  to  be  perfected 
again,  which  will  be  earlier  than  the  previous  season,  as  they  were  set 
growing  earlier.  Be  early  in  your  attendance  on  them,  when  they 
commence  growing,  so  as  to  remove  useless  buds,  instead  of  allowing 
them  to  form  useless  branches.  When  the  growth  is  completed,  re- 
move them  into  a cold  frame,  to  be  kept  from  the  spring  frosts,  but 
where  they  can  have  all  the  fine  weather.  In  this  state,  they  may 
remain  till  they  can  safely  be  put  out  in  the  open  air,  plunged  into  the 
ground,  and  properly  fastened  to  protect  them  from  the  wind.  In 
September,  you  may  examine  the  balls  of  earth,  to  see  if  the  roots  have 
room ; if  matted  at  all,  give  them  anotner  change.  Prune  the  plants 


FORCING  LATER  ROSES, 


43 


well,  as  before ; removing  altogether  such  of  the  present  year's  shoots 
as  are  at  all  weakly,  and  shortening  all  the  best  to  two  or  three  eyes. 
Let  them  now  be  taken  to  the  greenhouse,  or  conservatory,  or  a 
grapery,  or  all  in  turn ; but  gradually  increase  the  temperature,  till,  by 
the  end  of  October,  they  may  go  into  the  forcing  house,  beginning  at 
the  temperature  the  house  was  that  they  came  from,  say  fifty  to  fifty- 
five,  and  continuing  it  till  they  are  fairly  growing ; then  increasing  it 
to  sixty,  and  eventually  to  sixty-five ; rubbing  off,  as  before,  all  useless 
shoots,  and  giving  plenty  of  air,  when  it  can  be  done  without  lowering 
the  temperature.  At  the  least  appearance  of  the  green  fly,  syringe  with 
plain  water ; fumigate  at  night,  for  too  strong  a smoke  would  all  but 
destroy  the  plants  and  incipient  blooms.  In  this  way,  you  will  be  clear 
of  the  pest  without  damage,  and  your  reward  will  be  a fine  show  of 
blooms  on  every  rose  tree ; strong  growth,  healthy  foliage,  handsome 
plants,  and  all  that  can  be  desired. 


Forcing  Later  Hoses. 

The  principle  on  which  the  early  forcing  is  conducted  must  be  carried 
out  in  full,  not  only  in  potting  the  plants  then  pruning,  but  also  in  the 
period  of  removing  them.  If  you  wish  those  a month  later  to  succeed 
the  first,  put  them  into  the  house  a month  later,  each  of  the  years. 
If  you  want  others  to  succeed  these  second,  put  them  into  the  house 
a month  later  still  each  year.  For  nothing  has  been  shown  yet  in  the 
way  of  pot  roses,  better  than  were  shown  several  years  ago,  and  all  of 
them  have  had  a weakly  drawn  appearance,  and  have  been  anything 
but  creditable  to  the  taste  of  the  gardeners ; for  they  have  been  staked 
all  over,  and  thin,  flimsy  roses  on  limp-lankey  stems,  bound  up  to  a 
thicket  of  unnatural  wood.  Now,  by  the  plan  we  have  been  recom- 
mending, the  plant  is  longer  growing,  stronger  in  its  wood,  shorter  in 
its  joints,  and  more  abundant  in  branches,  foliage,  and  flowers.  The 
ordinary  mode  of  forcing  contemplates  no  more  than  removing  a plant 
from  out  of  doors  to  in-doors  in  one  year;  so  that,  without  having  the 
advantage  of  premature  ripeness  for  tvro  seasons,  or  even  one,  it  has 
to  perfect  its  flowers  before  their  time,  by  great  excitement,  with  a 
root  hardly  established.  We  hold  that  a Rose,  like  a grape  vine,  can- 
not, after  bearing  in  the  usual  season,  be  changed  all  at  once  to  early 
forcing,  without  great  sacrifice  of  crop,  strength,  or  beauty.  The 


44 


THE  FORCING  OF  ROSES. 


fact  of  sudden  excitement  being  fatal  to  a Rose  is  demonstrated  easily 
enough  by  the  result;  take  a stong  plant,  well  established,  from  the 
cold  atmosphere  and  temperature  of  the  ground,  into  a full-heated 
house,  and  every  bloom  will  be  blighted  in  its  incipient  state.  If  a 
decided  change  like  this  is  universally  fatal,  which  is  the  fact,  every 
sudden  change,  and  all  approaches  to  it,  are  proportionally  mischiev- 
ous. We  do  not,  however,  mean  to  say  that  roses  cannot  be  forced 
in  a single  season,  because  thousands  are  so  forced  and  sent  to  market ; 
and  the  usual  result  of  such  management  is,  three  or  four  lon£-drawn 
branches,  with  a bud  or  two  at  the  end  of  one,  and  sometimes  of  two, 
with  scarcely  strength  to  open  into  a flower.  There  are  exceptions 
to  the  choice  kinds  of  roses ; in  these  remarks,  we  allude  only  to  gar- 
den roses.  The  China  kinds  are  of  a different  nature,  always  growing 
and  blooming ; winter  and  summer,  if  they  are  kept  in  a moderate 
temperature,  are  almost  alike  to  them,  and  those  which  partake  of 
their  habit. 


The  Forcing  of  Roses — the  Dwarf  China  Rinds. 

This  family  has  scarcely  any  rest  in  pots,  and  under  protection,  it 
may  be  merely  kept  over  the  winter.  There  is  no  place  so  well 
adapted  for  them  as  a cold  pit,  with  a good  dry  bottom,  and  shelves 
near  the  glass ; but  a stout  shallow  box,  with  a regular  garden  light 
on  it,  placed  high  and  dry  on  a paved,  slated,  or  warm,  gravelled  bot- 
tom, makes  a good  shift. 

The  China  Rose,  and  all  the  short-jointed,  smooth-barked  kinds  that 
are  like  them  in  habit,  will  strike,  bud,  graft,  grow,  and  bloom  any 
month  in  the  year.  The  only  thing  necessary,  is  to  have  plants  m all 
stages,  and  there  will  never  be  any  want  of  flowers.  In  the  green- 
house, they  continue  growing  on,  and  blooming  at  all  times ; but  they 
cannot  be  kept  too  cool  generally,  and  if  abundance  of  flowers  are 
required  on  a plant,  it  must  have  a previous  rest,  and  be  shifted  to  a 
warm  temperature,  and  if  matted  in  the  roots,  a lagre  pot,  and  the  heat 
gradually  increased  until  it  will  bear  that  of  a moderate  stove.  All 
the  new  growth  will  flower  about  the  same  time,  or  at  least  suffi- 
cient of  it  to  well  decorate  the  plant.  Cuttings  may  be  struck  in  the 
spring,  planted  out  in  beds  six  inches  apart,  to  grow  a little ; the  tops 
may  be  pinched  off,  and  the  buds  taken  away  all  the  summer,  to  make 
them  bushy ; and  they  may  be  potted  up  with  a compost  of  half  losma, 


PROPAGATION  OF  TEE  ROSE, 


45 


a fourth  peat,  and  a fourth  cow  dung ; trimmed  a little  into  shape, 
and  placed  in  the  shade  a while.  In  September,  they  may  be  put  into 
their  frames,  covered  up  at  night  against  frost,  and  opened  in  mild 
veather,  until  the  ground  freezes ; they  may  then  be  removed,  a few 
t a time,  into  an  increased  temperature,  and  about  a month  apart, 
hey  will  be  found  to  bloom  well,  and  succeed  each  other  admirably, 
an  through  the  winter  and  spring,  before  those  out  of  doors  can  even 
fairly  start  into  leaf;  the  only  care  required  being  to  syringe  them 
against  attack  of  insects,  and  if  that  does  not  keep  them  under,  fumi- 
gate them ; and  see  that  they  never  suffer  from  want  of  water.  These, 
however,  like  the  Summer  Roses,  will  force  better  the  second  year 
than  the  first,  by  shifting  them  into  pots  a size  larger,  trimming  the 
plants  into  a proper  shape,  taking  away  the  weak  shoots,  letting  them 
rest,  and  giving  but  little  water  towards  the  end  of  the  summer,  ex- 
cept to  keep  them  from  actually  flagging ; putting  them  in  their  frames 
and  removing  them  into  heat,  as  before,  a few  at  a time,  and  a month 
apart. 


PROPAGATION  OF  THE  ROSE, 

The  Bose  is  propagated  by  seeds,  by  cuttings,  by  layers,  by  suckers, 
and  by  budding  or  grafting. 

Propagation  from  Seed. 

This  mode  is  adopted  for  the  purpose  of  raising  new  varieties  by 
crossing  different  kinds,  and  is  almost  exclusively  practised  by  profes- 
sional florists ; it  is  also  employed  for  obtaining  Sweet  Briers  and 
stocks.  When  the  seed  is  gathered  in  the  autumn,  it  is  either  rub- 
bed or  washed  out  of  the  “ hips”  and  kept  in  dry  sand ; or  the  hips 
are  laid  in  a cool  room,  and  turned  over  from  time  to  time,  till  the 
shell  is  rotted ; the  seed  is  sown  in  the  succeeding  spring,  after  which 
it  will  come  up  the  same  year. 

Sowing  of  the  Seed. — Among  the  numerous  modes  of  sowing  the 
seed  of  the  Rose,  strange  as  it  may  seem,  the  very  plan  which  has 
been  adopted  for  fifty  perennials,  or  perhaps  more,  answered  as  com- 


46 


PROPAGATION  OF  THE  ROSE. 


pletely  as  any.  For  instance,  Polyanthus  seed  and  Rose  seed  were 
sown  in  the  same  kind  of  soil,  loam  and  dung,  in  the  same  sort  of 
pan,  placed  in  the  same  garden  light,  watered  at  the  same  time ; and, 
though  coming  up  at  a different  period,  submitted  to  the  same  treat- 
ment in  other  respects;  shaded  from  the  same  noon- day  sun,  and, 
though  at  a different  time,  pricked  out  into  pots,  four  or  five  in  a pot, 
round  the  edge ; kept  cool,  and  growing  right  on ; and  when  the 
Polyanthuses  were  placed  in  their  single  pots,  the  Roses  were  also 
potted  in  theirs.  They  were  kept  dry  rather  than  otherwise  all  the 
ensuing  winter,  in  a cold  frame,  with  their  neighbors,  well  protected 
against  frost ; and  that  was  all. 

In  the  spring,  when  they  began  to  grow,  they  were  bedded  out  in 
rows,  in  a shady  border,  six  inches  apart,  and  the  rows  a foot  apart, 
and  here  they  remained  another  season,  making  considerable  growth  ; 
some  were  of  the  China  kind,  and  those  were  potted  up  and  kept 
gro wing ; the  others  were  hooped  over  with  low  hoops,  wThich  kept 
the  covering  close  down  on  them  in  bad  weather,  and  there  were 
several  that  died  during  the  winter.  In  the  spring  they  were  pruned 
carefully,  so  far  as  to  remove  all  but  the  two  or  three  strongest  shoots, 
and  those  were  cut  about  half  way  back.  Several  bloomed  weakly, 
but  most  of  them  made  good  growth.  No  part  of  the  success,  how- 
ever, went  beyond  the  growth;  not  half  a dozen  came  at  all  double, 
and  though  there  were  some  bright  colors,  there  were  none  in  our 
estimation  worth  saving.  The  China  ones  were  rather  better,  but  not 
good  enough ; so  that,  after  giving  a few  of  the  best  another  year’s 
chance,  every  vestige  was  given  or  thrown  away.  The  experiments 
followed  up  season  after  season  led  to  the  following  confirmed  prac- 
tice : — The  berries  were  dried  all  the  winter ; they  were  then  bruised 
in  a bag,  and  the  seeds  carefully  picked  out ; a slight  hot  bed  was 
made  up  as  if  for  annuals ; the  soil  put  six  inches  deep  all  over,  half- 
rotted  turf  and  half  cow  dung,  raked  smooth,  and  the  seed  sown  evenly 
and  thinly  all  over — occasionally  moistened ; the  seeds  came  up  well, 
and  were  shaded ; had  plenty  of  air  given,  and  the  usual  attendance 
to  see  that  they  were  not  dry,  but  not  much  watered.  Here,  as  soon 
as  they  were  large  enough,  they  were  thinned  a little,  by  carefully 
removing  a few  wherever  they  were  too  thick,  which  removed  ones 
were  as  carefully  potted  off  and  kept  in  the  greenhouse.  They  had 
no  other  care  during  the  season  than  protecting  them  from  too  much 


PROPAGATION  OF  THE  ROSE. 


47 


sun ; but  they  were  allowed  to  be  quite  open  on  mild  cloudy  days> 
and  had  warm  showers  of  rain  at  all  opportunities.  Here  it  was 
found  necessary  to  fumigate  them  several  times  to  get  rid  of  the 
aphides,  which  partially  appeared  five  or  six  times  during  the  season, 
but  were  speedily  cleared  away.  The  lights  were  taken  off  towards 
autumn,  and  the  young  plants  looked  as  well  as  could  be  wished. 
At  the  period  when  frosts  were  expected,  they  were  removed  care- 
fully with  all  their  roots,  into  a bed  made  of  the  same  compost,  and  a 
foot  deep ; planted  a foot  apart  every  way,  and  the  bed  being  four  feet 
wide,  took  four  across  it,  the  outer  ones  being  six  inches  from  the 
edge  of  the  bed.  The  same  precaution  was  taken  with  mats  and 
hoops  to  keep  off  heavy  falls  of  snow  or  hard  frosts,  and  they  were 
allowed  to  push  as  much  as  they  would,  without  pruning,  all  the  next 
season,  no  other  pains  being  taken  than  to  throw  the  mat  over  when 
the  sun  was  distressingly  hot,  and  to  water  them  freely  on  dry  parch- 
ing weather,  every  night.  At  the  autumn,  they  were  replanted,  all 
the  weak  shoots  being  cut  out,  but  the  strong  ones  not  shortened  till 
spring.  Though  there  was  a manifest  improvement  in  the  flowers 
each  season,  it  was  four  or  five  before  anything  like  the  quality  of 
some  present  roses  was  approached. 

This  practice  differs,  in  some  respects,  from  that  of  some  other 
nurserymen;  we  have  seen  healthy  seedlings,  since  all  these  pains 
were  taken,  where  the  seeds  were  sown  out  of  doors  in  a common 
bed,  raked  in  like  so  many  onions ; came  up  like  so  many  weeds ; 
grew  well  and  stood  the  weather  without  even  a shelter  from  hard 
frosts.  Some  may  have  been  killed  and  not  missed,  but  they  did  as 
well,  to  all  appearance,  as  those  more  tenderly  nursed. 

Hastening  the  Flowering  of  Seedlings. 

When  the  seedlings  come  up  in  May  or  June,  keep  them  well  moist- 
ened, but  not  too  wet,  until  you  can  get  hold  of  them  well  to  pot  off. 
Put  one  each  into  small  pots,  and  let  them,  as  soon  as  they  are  estab- 
lished, be  placed  in  the  shade  out  of  doors ; but  the  greatest  care  must 
be  taken  to  prevent  the  attack  of  the  fly,  or  vermin  of  any  kind. 
They  must  be  looked  at  almost  daily,  and  upon  the  least  appearance 
of  any  insects,  you  must  remove  the  plants  under  cover,  where  you 
can  fumigate  and  syringe  them  regularly.  It  is  still  better,  if  you  have 


48 


PROPAGATION  OF  THE  ROSE* 


frame  room,  to  put  them  in  when  potted,  because  it  gives  an  oppor- 
tunity of  shading,  of  keeping  off  too  much  wet,  protecting  them 
against  wind,  and  of  fumigating  without  the  least  difficulty,  when 
necessary.  They  should,  however,  seldom  have  the  glasses  on. 

After  the  seedlings  have  been  five  or  six  weeks  in  these  pots,  they 
may  be  bedded  out,  in  rich  beds  of  loam  and  dung,  without  disturbing 
the  balls ; they  should  be  about  a foot  apart,  in  beds  of  four  feet  wide; 
by  planting  within  six  inches  of  the  side  of  the  bed,  four  rows  will  go 
in,  and  they  will  here  grow  rapidly.  Before  the  close  of  the  budding 
season,  many  will  have  grown  quite  large  enough  to  bud  from ; and 
the  most  promising  may  be  cut  back,  and  three  or  four  buds  put  on 
remarkably  strong  stocks.  Select  a strong  branch  for  budding  on, 
and  at  first,  you  must  let  some  portion  of  the  branch  beyond  the  bud 
be  left  on  to  grow ; a very  small  shoot  beyond  the  bud  will  do  to 
insure  the  growth.  These  buds  will  strike  off  vigorously  the  next 
season,  and  make  considerable  growth ; but  before  the  bud  has  shot 
far,  cut  the  stock  away  everywhere  but  the  portions  budded  on.  The 
growth  they  will  make  this  summer  on  strong  stocks  will  insure  their 
Uoom  the  next  season ; and,  as  the  real  object  is  to  see  if  the  Rose  be 
good  for  anything,  they  should  not  be  pruned,  except  so  far  as  to  cut 
away  weak  branches  altogether ; by  leaving  the  full  length  of  the 
strong  shoots,  the  blooms  will  be  hastened. 

In  the  mean  time,  those  in  the  bed  may  be  treated  as  directed ; and 
though  not  generally  the  case  under  the  present  management,  they 
have  bloomed  these  years  on  their  own  bottoms,  though  there  were 
a great  number  much  later  than  the  third  year,  and  some  even  went 
to  the  fifth.  This  mode  of  budding  the  promising  seedlings  hastens 
the  certainty  of  bloom  very  much,  as  it  is  very  rare  indeed  that  they 
niisu  coming  the  third  year.  If  they  are  worth  propagating,  the 
budding  greatly  increases  the  quantity  of  wood  to  work  from.  If,  on 
the  contrary,  they  turn  out  good  for  nothing,  the  instant  you  discover 
it,  cut  away  all  the  wood,  and  the  stocks  will,  in  all  probability,  grow 
in  time  for  budding  other  sorts  upon  the  same  season  you  discover 
the  deficiency  of  those  already  worked.  In  this  way,  without  incur- 
ring much  trouble,  you  may  satisfy  yourself  as  to  the  quality  of  seed- 
lings for  a certainty  the  third  year ; therefore,  you  should  provide 
yourself  with  stocks  for  that  purpose,  whenever  you  sow  seedlings. 
For  China  sorts,  you  should  have  some  stocks  of  the  common  China, 


PROPAGATION  OF  THE  ROSE. 


49 


or  Boursault,  or  the  Dog  Rose,  in  good-sized  pots,  and  well  estab- 
lished; for  they  may  be  budded  later,  protected  better,  and  indeed 
some  of  the  seedlings  which  partake  much  of  the  China  are  tender, 
and  really  require  protection  from  the  frost. 

Retarding  the  Flovrericg  of  the  Rose. 

The  most  simple  method  of  retarding  the  flowering  of  the  Provence 
and  Moss  Roses,  so  as  to  have  the  plants  in  bloom  late  in  autumn,  is 
to  cut  off  the  tops  of  the  shoots  produced  in  the  spring,  just  before 
they  begin  to  show  their  flower  buds  ; the  effect  of  this  treatment  will 
be  to  cause  the  plants  to  throw  out  fresh  shoots,  which  will  bloom 
later,  according  to  the  period  in  which  the  operation  is  performed. 

It  may  also  be  done  by  transplanting  the  bushes  early  in  the  spring, 
as  soon  as  they  have  formed  their  buds,  which  should  be  cut  off.  The 
roots  must  not  be  allowed  to  dry  before  they  are  put  into  the  earth 
again;  and  they  will  require  artificial  watering  if  the  season  should  be 
dry,  to  make  them  flower  late  in  the  fall. 

Propagation  "by  Cuttings. 

When  the  earliest  shoots  of  the  China  Rose  are  about  four  inches 
long,  cut  them  off  close  to  the  old  wood,  plant  them  in  pots  half  filled 
with  soil,  and  plunge  them  in  a warm  situation,  placing  over  the  pot 
a flat  piece  of  glass,  to  exclude  the  cold  air ; the  glass  should  be  wiped 
occasionally.  Thus  treated,  they  will  make  blooming  plants  by  autumn. 

Indian  Roses,  and  climbing  kinds,  are  also  easily  propagated  by 
cuttings  and  slips,  protecting  them  as  above,  or  by  a hand  glass,  when 
the  climate  is  cold. 


Propagation  ‘by  Suckers. 

Many  roses,  indeed  most  of  them,  growing  on  their  own  roots, 
instead  of  by  grafting  on  a stock,  constantly  spread  at  the  roots,  and 
branches  force  their  way  up,  much  to  the  annoyance,  sometimes,  of 
the  men  in  charge  of  the  rosary.  In  the  spring  months,  their  suckers 
should  be  looked  for,  and  when  found,  they  should  be  taken  off  at 
once,  far  enough  under  ground  to  get  a piece  of  root  with  them. 
These  should  be  replanted  instantly  on  the  removal;  but  if  a piece  be 

3 


50 


PROPAGATION  OF  THE  HOSE. 


planted  out,  and  devoted  to  propagation,  the  proper  method  is  to  dig 
up  the  plants  in  autumn,  tracing  the  roots  as  far  as  they  go,  and  tak- 
ing the  portions  which  have  been  growing  above  ground  out  at  the 
same  time.  Some  kinds  will  have  half  a dozen,  or  more,  perfect  plants, 
which  have  been  formed  by  the  spreading  at  the  root,  and  the  end 
growing  up  through  the  surface.  These  suckers  should  be  trimmed 
and  planted  carefully,  at  such  distance  as  the  sizes  warrant;  generally 
in  rows  a yard  apart,  and  the  plants  eighteen  inches  from  each  other. 
Here  they  have  to  be  cut  down  in  spring  to  within  three  or  four  eyes 
of  the  ground. 

Propagation  by  Layers. 

The  Rose  will  propagate  from  layers.  To  do  this,  some  merely  select 
a lower  branch,  and,  bending  the  wood  sharp  between  two  joints,  peg 
that  down  under  ground  in  autumn ; it  will  root  well  by  the  following 
fall.  Others  cut  a notch  in  the  wood,  on  the  upper  side,  which  makes 
the  bend  sharper ; but  there  is  more  danger  of  breaking  it.  Another 
method  is,  to  run  a knife  through  the  wood,  so  as  to  split  it,  and  then 
give  the  wood  a little  twist  • but  most  of  the  sorts  will  root  if  only 
pegged  under  the  surface.  That,  however,  is  rarely  resorted  to;  and 
when  it  is  considered  what  facilities  for  propagation  are  offered  other- 
wise, it  is  no  wonder.  The  laying  should  be  done  as  soon  as  the 
wood  has  ripened,  and  the  pegs  to  be  used  should  be  like  a miniature 
hooked  walking  stick,  which  it  is  easy  to  form  out  of  any  branch  of 
wood.  This  hook  is  thrust  into  the  ground  firmly,  to  hold  fast  the 
whole  winter  and  summer  season. 

In  dry  weather,  the  layers  should  be  watered,  as  the  trees  them- 
selves, or  bushes,  frequently  prevent  the  rain  from  coming  near  the 
surface,  where  the  branch  is  pegged  down,  and  they  would  in  such 
cases  have  no  encouragement  to  root.  In  the  autumn  of  the  next  year, 
examine  them  all  before  they  are  cut  off  from  the  parent  root,  and  if 
rooted,  of  which  there  will  be  little  doubt,  cut  the  new  plant  away, 
with  all  the  new  root;  and  in  planting  it  out  in  another  place,  shorten 
the  portion  above  ground  to  half  its  length ; and  at  pruning  time,  in 
the  spring,  cut  it  down  within  three  or  four  eyes  of  the  ground,  in  order 
that  it  may  form  a bush.  • 


PROPAGATION  OF  THE  ROSE. 


51 


Layers  of  some  roses  strike  almost  immediately ; and  from  this 
facility,  it  is  a common  practice  to  lay  them  all  over  a bed  by  pegging 
down  the  branches  on  the  surface,  at  small  distances,  and  thus  cover 
a whole  space,  which  have  rooted  at  almost  every  joint.  The  flowers, 
in  such  cases,  are  very  strong;  but  a bush  thus  treated,  and  every 
branch  layered,  would  cut  up  into  an  immense  number  of  plants. 


Propagation  "by  Budding  on  Briers. 

We  marry 

A gentle  scion  on  the  wildest  stock, 

And  make  conceive  a bark  of  baser  kind 

By  bud  of  nobler  race  ; this  is  art 

Which  does  mend  nature — change  it  rotting  ; but 

The  art  itself  is  nature.  Shakspeare, 

There  is  no  process  in  the  art  of  Practical  Gardening  more  interest- 
ing, nor  the  fruits  of  which  are  more  gratifying  to  an  amateur,  than 
budding.  The  theory  is  this : At  the  base  of  the  leaf  is  a small  bud, 
which,  after  the  leaf  falls  away  from  it,  becomes  prominent,  and  event- 
ually, if  left  on  the  tree,  makes  a branch.  By  taking  a leaf  off  with 
part  of  the  bark,  this  incipient  bud  comes  with  it,  and  by  inserting 
this  bark  under  the  bark  of  another  rose  tree,  say  one  of  these  com- 
mon briers,  it  unites  as  if  it  were  originally  a part  of  the  brier  itself; 
but  the  bud  retains  all  the  character  of  the  one  it  came  from,  and  is 
not  changed  in  the  smallest  degree  by  the  transfer  from  its  own  to 
another  stock.  This  is  the  fact  upon  which  all  propagation  by  bud- 
ding is  founded ; and,  therefore,  we  have  two  leading  points  to  consider 
in  setting  about  this  operation. 

First,  we  must  have  the  green  bark  of  the  stock,  into  which  the 
buds  are  to  be  inserted,  rise  easily,  which  it  does  all  the  while  the 
branch  is  green  and  growing ; and,  secondly,  we  must  wait  until  the 
bud,  small  and  almost  imperceptible  as  it  is  at  the  base  of  the  leaf,  is 
old  enough  to  be  removed  with  safety.  In  a general  way,  the  buds 
of  Summer  Roses  are  not  ready  till  nearly  mid-summer,  and  the  bark 
will  not  easily  rise  from  the  wood  of  the  stock  much  after  that.  The 
budding  season  may,  however,  be  called  from  the  middle  of  June  to 
the  middle  of  August,  and  not  very  much  longer.  What  is  meant  by 
the  bark  easily  rising  is,  easily  leaving  the  wood,  so  that  it  would  bo 
easy  to  peel  a branch  by  stripping  the  bark  off 


52 


PROPAGATION  OF  THE  ROSE. 


The  first  thing,  then,  to  look  to,  is  to  obtain  branches  of  the  rose 
tree  from  which  we  want  to  produce  other  plants.  If  you  obtain 
these  branches  before  you  are  ready  to  use  them,  plant  the  thick  end 
in  the  ground,  and  do  not  let  the  sun  come  near  them,  as  it  -would  soon 
destroy  them ; but  the}-  ought  not  to  be  an  hour  longer  than  you  can 
help  unused.  Get  some  bass  matting  for  ties,  or  very  coarse  worsted, 
which  some  prefer,  because  it  gives  way  better  if  the  bud  swells,  and 
will  stand  the  weather  longer.  With  a very  sharp  knife,  called  a 
u budding  knife,”  if  you  have  one,  and,  if  not,  any  other,  and  a thin  piece 
of  hard  wood  or  ivory,  like  a diminutive  paper  knife,  you  may  go  to 
work.  The  knife  is  to  slit  the  bark  down  to  the  wood  wherever  you 
mean  to  put  in  the  bud,  and  the  piece  of  hard  wood  or  ivory,  with  a 
sort  of  blunt  edge  like  a paper  knife,  is  to  divide  the  bark  from  the 
wood  by  running  it  along  under  the  bark,  on  each  side  of  the  slit. 

Stocks  for  Budding  and  Grafting . — The  great  call  for  these  articles 
has  made  it  somewhat  difficult  to  procure  them  anywhere  but  at  the 
nurseries ; and  when  you  consider  you  can  pick  and  choose  at  some 
price  or  other,  the  nurseries  are  the  best  place  for  an  amateur  to  pur- 
chase. In  some  parts  of  the  country,  the  briers  are  plentiful,  but  they 
are  mostly  in  hedge  rows,  and  it  is  somewhat  perilous  work  to  grub 
them  up  without  permission ; nevertheless,  many  men  get  their  living 
by  collecting  these  for  the  nursery  grounds.  The  stocks  should  be 
procured  at  the  fall  of  the  leaf,  and  be  straight,  strong,  well  rooted  and 
compact.  These  should  be  placed  in  rows,  eighteen  inches  apart  from 
each  other,  and  three-foot  or  three-foot-six-inch  vacancies  between 
the  rows ; they  should  be  staked,  or,  which  is  better,  stakes  should 
be  put  at  equal  distances,  and  a rail  along  them,  to  which  rail  all  the 
stocks  should  be  fastened  by  strong  ties,  the  whole  being  well  trodden 
in  after  the  manner  that  new  roses  are  planted. 

The  preparation  of’  the  roots  should  be  in  all  respects  the  same,  and 
the  stocks  are  generally  shortened  before  you  get  them  to  the  height 
their  growth  best  adapts  them  for.  Here  they  remain  till  they  begin 
to  push  in  spring,  when  all  the  lower  buds  must  be  rubbed  off,  leav- 
ing the  three  or  four  that  are  highest  up  the  stock  to  see  which  will 
grow  best.  It  will  be  found  that  some  of  these  stocks  have  died 
down  to  a considerable  distance ; but  as  they  are  not  of  the  slightest 
importance  above  the  top  growing  bud,  you  may,  with  a strong  knife, 
cut  right  down  to  the  bud,  or  leave  it  till  after  the  summer  growth  of 


PROPAGATION  OF  THE  ROSE. 


53 


the  buds  has  considerably  advanced.  If  you  have  one  good  branch, 
it  will  do,  but  two  on  opposite  sides  are  better,  because  you  can  work 
both,  and  be  safe  if  one  fails.  Several  times,  you  must  go  over  these 
stocks,  to  rub  off  the  fresh  buds  that  will  be  springing  out  on  different 
parts  of  them,  where  they  are  not  wanted ; and  two  good  buds  near 
the  top  are  all  you  need  save.  You  have  to  remember  that  all  the 
strength  of  the  plant  will  go  into  these  two  branches,  if  the  others  are 
taken  away ; but  that  every  leaf  that  is  allowed  to  grow,  besides  those 
wanted,  takes  greatly  from  their  strength,  on  which  strength  the  value 
of  the  plant  entirely  depends. 

If  the  top  shoots  or  buds  happen  to  be  weak  in  the  first  instance, 
compared  with  some  lower  down  the  stock,  it  is  better  to  rub  off  the 
top,  and  lose  a little  height  of  the  stock,  than  trust  to  dwindling 
branches,  so  that,  in  this  case,  your  two  branches  to  save  might  be 
half  way  down  the  stem ; and  it  is  better,  in  such  case,  to  down  at 
once  to  it,  that  the  top  may  be  no  more  trouble,  and  may  not  mislead 
you,  in  going  over  them  a second  time,  to  cut  or  pull  out  your  best 
branches ; for  the  top,  so  long  as  you  leave  it  on,  would  be  throwing 
out  its  green  shoots ; and  being  the  same  height  as  the  general  run  of 
them,  nothing  is  more  likely.  All  that  is  to  be  done,  besides  keeping 
the  stocks  from  throwing  out  other  branches,  is  to  cut  away  from  the 
roots  any  suckers  that  may  come  up,  and  which  distress  the  stock 
nearly  as  much  as  the  dwarf  branches.  The  ground,  of  course,  is  to 
be  kept  clear  of  weeds  until  mid-summer,  which  is  the  season  for  bud- 
ding, and  which  is  the  next  subject  for  consideration. 


Being  thus  provided,  go  to  your  stocks  with  your  branches  of  the 
trees  you  want  to  propagate,  in  your  apron  ; for  you  ought  to  have 
front  pockets,  and  the  bass  matting  should  be  tucked  in  the  apron 


54 


PROPAGATION  OF  THE  ROS& 


string ; take  hold  of  the  stock  firmly,  and  shorten  both  the  branches 
to  a foot,  or  even  less ; then  with  your  knife,  cut  a slit  in  the  bark, 
within  half  an  inch  of  the  base  of  the  branch  upward,  and  on  the  upper 
side,  an  inch  and  a half  long ; about  the  middle  of  this  slit,  make  a 
small  cut  across;  then  with  your  ivory,  or  thin  wood — or  more 
properly,  if  you  have  it,  with  the  handle  of  your  budding  knife — raise 
up  the  bark  on  both  sides ; then  take  the  branch  of  your  rose  tree 


from  which  you  take  your  buds,  and  with  your  sharp  knife,  shave  out 
of  the  branch  a thin  piece  of  the  wood,  beginning  half  an  inch  below 
a leaf,  and  taking  the  knife  along  to  come  out  half  an  inch  above  the 
leaf.  This  small  bit  has  to  be  inserted  under  the  bark  on  both  sides, 
bringing  the  leaf,  which  is  where  the  bud  is,  to  the  exact  place  where 
the  cross  cut  is ; when  it  is  neatly  inserted,  take  your  piece  of  matting 


and  place  the  middle  of  it  across  the  slit  just  under  the  leaf ; pass  it 
under,  and  cross  it  backward  and  forward  along  the  branch  till  the 
bark  is  completely  tied  down  close,  and  only  the  leaf  and  bud  exposed. 


PROPAGATION  OF  THE  ROSE. 


55 


As  the  weather  at  this  time  is  often  very  hot,  it  is  a good  plan  to  tie 
a bunch  of  loose  moss  over  all,  and  water  the  moss  occasionally  the 
first  few  days,  because  it  keeps  off  the  burning  sun,  even  if  dry,  and 
greatly  preserves  the  newly-disturbed  bark.  It  will  be  easily  seen 
that  the  quicker  this  operation  is  performed  the  better;  because,  if  the 
sap  of  the  bud,  or  that  of  the  raised  bark,  has  time  to  dry,  the  union 
of  the  one  with  the  other  cannot  be  completed  with  any  degree  of  cer- 
tainty. 

The  bark  being  damped  immediately  by  the  application  of  wet  moss 
will  hardly  undo  any  mischief  already  done ; so  that  a sharp  knife,  a 
clean  cut,  and  rapid  action  are  necessary,  and  can  hardly  fail.  If  the 
bud  is  cut  out  of  the  branch  too  thick,  and  too  much  wood  is  taken 
out  with  the  bark  and  bud,  the  wood  ought  to  be  cut  thinner,  or  pulled 
out  from  the  bark  of  the  bud  altogether ; but  there  is  danger  in  taking 
out  the  wood ; for  it  will  occasionally  bring  out  the  germ  of  the  bud 
with  it.  The  effect  of  this  would  be,  that  nothing  would  indicate 
outside  what  was  wrong,  but  the  bud  would  not  grow.  It  would 
look  as  green,  as  fresh,  and  as  completely  united,  as  if  the  germ  were 
there.  On  this  account,  you  may  omit  the  practice  of  taking  the  little 
bit  of  wood  from  the  inside  of  the  bud,  and  with  the  greatest  success. 
This  operation  should  be  carried  through  all  the  stocks,  if  you 
have  plenty  of  buds  on  each  of  the  branches ; because  two  buds  will 
make  a head  sooner  than  one,  and  if  you  choose  to  do  so,  you  may 
put  two  different  sorts  on  the  same  stock.  In  this  case,  you  must  be 
particular  about  having  two  of  about  the  same  habit;  for  a fast-growing 
one  would  soon  deprive  a slow-growing  one  of  all  the  necessary  nour- 
ishment; and,  besides  this,  it  would  grow  incongruously,  and  would  not 
be  controllable.  On  the  other  hand,  if  you  have  two  of  similar  habit, 
and  opposite  colors,  it  may  be  made  a very  pretty  object.  But  the 
great  value  of  this  delicate,  though  simple  operation,  is  to  make  an 
old  China,  or  other  strong-growing  Rose,  long  established,  change  its 
face  altogether.  Many  kinds  of  roses  may  be  budded  on  such  a tree, 
by  selecting  all  the  strong-growing  branches  of  the  present  year’s 
growth,  putting  a different  bud  in  each,  and  cutting  all  the  other  parts 
of  the  tree  away,  leaving  the  novelties  alone  to  grow;  or  the  buds 
may  be  all  of  the  same  sort,  so  it  be  some  choice  kind ; but  different 
colored  roses  have  the  best  effect. 

Spring  Budding. — But  one  of  the  most  sure  and  expeditious  methods 


50 


PROPAGATION  OF  THE  ROSE. 


is  that  called  “spring  budding,”  by  which  the  bark  of  the  stock,  as 
early  in  the  season  as  it  will  separate  from  the  wood,  is  cut  like  the 
letter  T inverted,  (thus,  j;, ) as  shown  by  a,  in  the  adjoining  figure ; 


wnereas,  in  “summer  budding,”  it  forms  a T in  its  erect  position. 
The  horizontal  edges  of  this  cut  in  the  stock,  and  of  the  “ shield  bark” 
containing  the  bud,  should  be  brought  into  the  most  perfect  contact, 
as  denoted  by  h;  because  the  union  of  the  bark  in  spring  takes 
place  by  means  of  the  ascent  of  the  sap ; whereas,  in  summer  budding, 
it  is  supposed  to  be  caused  by  its  descent.  The  parts  should  then 
immediately  be  bound  with  water-proof  bass,  (c,)  without  applying 
either  grafting  clay  or  grafting  wax.  The  buds  may  be  inserted  either 
in  a healthful  branch,  or  in  a stock  near  the  ground.  In  general,  two 
buds  are  sufficient  for  one  stock,  and  these  should  be  of  the  same 
variety;  as  two  sorts  seldom  grow  with  equal  vigor.  The  bass 
ligature,  which  confines  the  bud,  may  be  removed,  if  the  season  be 
moist,  in  a month  after  budding ; but  if  it  be  hot  and  dry,  not  for  six 
weeks  at  least.  As  soon  as  the  inserted  buds  show  signs  of  vegetation, 
the  stock  or  branch  containing  them  should  be  pruned  down,  so  as  to 
leave  one  or  two  buds  or  shoots  above.  If  the  stock  is  allowed  to 
have  a leading  shoot  above  the  inserted  buds,  and  this  shoot  is  not 
shortened,  the  buds  inserted  probably  will  not  show  many  signs  of 
vegetation  for  several  weeks. 


PROPAGATION  BY  GRAFTING. 


57 


PROPAGATION  BY  GRAFTING. 

This  is  by  means  so  simple  an  operation,  though  not  a very  difficult 
matter;  nevertheless,  the  pith  in  the  centre  of  the  wood  is  against  it, 
as  well  as  the  discrepancy  in  general  between  the  stock  and  the  scion. 
The  act  of  grafting  is  adopted  for  the  same  purpose  as  that  of  budding 
— to  propagate  particular  varieties.  It  is  not  so  safe  nor  so  certain  a 
mode  as  budding,  but  in  the  spring,  there  is  no  other  means ; and  as  in 
the  purchase  of  new  roses,  there  is  generally  a good  deal  of  ripe  wood 
that  must  be  cut  off,  those  who  have  stocks  that  are  fit  for  grafting 
frequently  adopt  it.  There  are  various  modes  of  performing  this 
operation ; one  or  two  ways  are  applicable  to  the  old  wood  of  the 
stock ; other  modes  are  adapted  to  the  last  year’s  branches.  In  the 
one  case,  a cleft  is  made  in  the  stump  of  the  stock,  and  the  wood 
belonging  to  the  new  Rose  to  be  inserted  is  cut  in  an  angular  form  to 
fit  it.  It  is  then  bound  in  its  place  by  bass  matting,  or  some  other  tie, 


and  the  joins  covered  with  grafting  clay,  or,  which  is  more  generally 
used  for  roses,  grafting  wax ; a composition  formed  of  beeswax  and 
resin,  in  equal  parts,  and  a little  tallow,  to  render  it  easily  fusible 
at  a low  heat,  because  the  real  object  of  this  wax  is  to  melt  at  a 
heat  which  will  not  hurt  the  trees,  but  that  will,  on  cooling,  be  suf- 
ficiently hard  to  keep  in  its  place,  and  bear  even  the  heat  of  the  sun 
without  running  away. 

There  are  various  modes  of  grafting  the  smaller  branches  of  the 
stock ; that  is  to  say,  the  branches  of  the  last  year’s  growth.  One 
mode  is,  to  cut  the  branch  down  to  two  inches  in  length,  and  then  cut 

3* 


58 


PROPAGATION  BY  GRAFTING. 


this  short  piece  down  the  middle,  cutting  out  the  inside  of  the  wood 
sloping  outward,  so  as  to  receive  a wedge-shaped  graft,  which  should 
be  about  the  same  size,  if  possible ; cut  this  into  the  shape  of  a wedge, 
and  insert  it  in  the  stock,  making  as  complete  a fit  as  possible,  and  be 
careful  that  the  bark  of  both  scion  and  stock  exactly  join  on  one 
side,  whether  it  reach  the  other  side  or  not;  for,  unless  the  barks 
meet  on  one  side,  it  will  be  impossible  to  unite.  It  will  frequently 
happen  that  the  scion  is  smaller  than  the  stock;  the  one  must  be  used 
as  you  have  got  it,  the  other  you  must  get  as  good  as  you  can ; and 
when  you  have  it,  make  the  best  of  it.  Others,  in  grafting,  cut  the 
branch  of  the  stock  into  a wedge,  and  the  scion  is  cut  to  receive  it. 
The  effect  is  the  same  in  the  end,  if  well  done,  and  in  good  grafting,  the 
joint  is  soon  lost  in  the  growth. 

There  is  one  advantage  in  grafting  in  spring : If  it  takes,  you  may 
have  roses  the  same  year,  and  thus  a season  is  saved ; but,  if  any  of 
them  fail,  the  stock  will  grow,  if  the  graft  does  not ; and,  of  course,  if 
the  graft  does  not  grow,  you  must  allow  the  top  branches  of  the  stock 
to  grow,  and  rub  off  all  other  buds,  just  as  if  it  had  not  been  grafted. 
The  China  kinds  will  graft  at  any  time  of  the  year,  but  they  must  be  on 
China  stocks,  or  stocks  partaking  of  the  nature  of  China  stocks.  It  is 
only  the  deciduous  kind  of  stock  which  is  confined  to  the  spring 
grafting,  and  it  is  not  uncommon  to  see  the  solid  stock  of  a large  size 
cleft  to  make  room  for  a small  bit  of  choice  wood ; they  holding  it  to 


be  a waste  to  throw  away  the  prunings  of  the  Hose,  and  giving  much 
attention  to  the  profitable  use  of  them. 

Root  Grafting. — It  will  be  always  found  in  a plantation  of  roses  that 


PROPAGATION  BY  GRAFTING. 


69 


suckers  spring  up  in  abundance  from  the  roots;  these  would  soon  rob 
the  head  or  worked  part  of  a great  portion  of  its  nourishment;  but 
these  suckers  are  useful  when  taken  off  with  a good  portion  of  root  to 
them,  because  there  is  not  a more  certain  mode  of  propagating  the 
Rose  than  neatly  grafting  a piece  of  the  wood  of  a Rose  on  the  root 
just  under  the  surface ; the  union  is  almost  certain,  if  at  all  dexterously 


done.  The  proper  mode  of  doing  this,  is  to  pull  up  the  sucker,  which 
will  expose  the  root  some  distance,  and  take  off  a good  piece  of  root 
with  it  from  the  parent  stock ; cut  the  sucker  completely  off  to  the 
part  that  was  on  the  surface  of  the  ground ; get  a piece  of  the  wood 
of  a Rose  as  nearly  the  size  of  the  root  as  possible,  cut  a slit  in  the 
root,  making  both  cuts  smooth  and  flat  inside;  then  cut  the  scion 
wedge  fashion,  and  make  the  bark  fit  it  even  with  the  outer  cuticle  of 
the  root ; tie  them  well  together,  and  plant  them  so  that  the  entire 
graft  goes  under  the  surface  of  the  ground.  These  root  grafts  are 
excellent  for  dwarf  plants,  for  they  are  worked  actually  under  ground, 
and  when  well  done  they  make  excellent  plants.  Grafting  the  Rose  is 
not  chosen  before  budding ; but,  as  there  is  always  a good  deal  of 
waste  wood  in  a rose  tree  that  has  to  come  off  in  spring,  many  give 
grafting  a chance ; and  of  grafting,  root  grafting  is  one  of  the  most 
effective.  There  is  never  any  scarcity  of  roots  among  a collection  of 
roses ; forking  the  ground  a little  brings  up  these  straggling  shoots  ; 
and  so  that  there  be  a good  piece  of  healthy  stuff,  there  is  no  difficulty 
in  making  a good  job.  There  is  no  occasion  to  clay  over  the  join  in 
root  grafting. 

There  is  another  advantage  in  root  grafting : it  is  applicable  with 
the  China  kinds  all  the  season  through,  if  you  make  sure  of  a healthy 
root ; nor  is  there  any  difficulty  in  obtaining  proper  roots  for  the  pur- 


60 


PRUNING. 


pose.  Wherever  a sucker  comes  up  through  the  ground,  use  a fork  and 
take  up  as  much  root  as  you  think  suck  a plant  ought  to  have ; the 
operation  must  be  performed  quickly,  and  with  a very  sharp  knife, 
for  the  root  must  not  dry  under  the  operation,  and  they  must  be 
planted  directly..  The  graft  need  not  be  put  in  wedge  fashion ; any 
other  way  is  as  good,  if  the  join  be  smooth,  well  fitted,  and  tied  firmly. 
But  we  do  not  recommend  grafting,  of  any  kind  as  the  best  means  of 
propagation.  Nothing  is  so  simple  as  budding,  and  scarcely  anything 
so  efficacious.  The  propagators  of  roses  by  root  grafting  are  very  apt 
to  grow  the  suckers  in  pots  for  a considerable  time,  so  that  they  get 
completely  established  after  being  broken  away  from  the  parent  root, 
before  they  are  submitted  to  the  operation  of  grafting,  and  this 
becomes  then  almost  a matter  of  certainty ; whereas  we  have  known 
the  roots  of  suckers  bleed  so  much,  that  they  have  lost  the  root, 
and  have  been  indebted  to  the  graft  striking  root  for  not  losing  it 
altogether. 


PRUNING. 

The  principal  objects  to  be  attained  by  pruning  roses  are — first,  to 
compensate,  by  reducing  the  part  to  be  nourished,  for  the  loss  of  the 
root  that  has  to  nourish  it,  which  loss,  greater  or  lesser,  is  always 
suffered  by  removal.  The  proper  way  to  do  this  pruning  depends 
much  on  the  state  of  the  plant  when  you  have  planted  it.  If  it  be 
very  bushy,  cut  away'  all  the  weather  branches,  leave  not  more 
than  three  or  four  of  the  best  of  the  shoots,  and  shorten  even  those 
down  to  a few  eyes.  If  you  wish  the  plant  to  continue  dwarf  and 
bushy,  you  may  cut  down  to  the  last  eye  or  two  of  the  new  wood, 
but  leave  no  thin  half-grown  shoots  on  at  any  rate.  If  the  plant  is  a 
matured  bush,  with  numerous  branches,  and  pretty  strong  generally, 
shorten  the  new  wood  down  to  two  eyes,  which  will  show  what  more 
you  need  do.  It  may  be  found  that  you  have  then  a great  many 
more  branches  left  on  than  you  require;  cut  one  half  of  them  close 
off,  and  that  half  must  be  the  thinnest ; but  it  may  be  that  the  plant 
will  be  improved  by  cutting  some  of  the  main  branches  clear  away, 


PRUNING. 


61 


and  all  that  are  on  it ; for  rose  trees  and  bushes,  like  everything  else, 
are  easily  spoiled  by  bearing  too  much  wood,  and  being  over-crowded. 

The  regular  Climbing  Rose  is  often  required  to  make  as  much  show 
as  possible  the  first  year  of  planting ; but  unless  they  are  removed 
with  the  greatest  possible  care,  they  ought  to  be  cut  almost  to  the 
ground,  and  thinned  out  also.  None  but  the  strongest  wood  ought 
10  be  allowed  to  remain  on  the  plant,  and  if  this  be  not  of  quite  first 
rate  excellence,  it  is  far  better  to  cut  out  all  the  weak  branches,  and 
cut  down  the  strong  ones  to  two  eyes  each. 

Pruning  Standards, 

With  regard  to  Standard  Roses,  we  cannot  help  thinking,  from  all 
we  have  seen  practised,  that  a large  portion  of  them  are  grown  alto- 
gether upon  a wrong  principle.  Standard  trees,  to  be  handsome, 
should  be  as  wide  in  the  head  as  their  entire  height ; and  upon  the 
present  system  of  pruning  them,  they  enlarge  a little  every  year. 

When  your  standards  are  planted,  you  need  do  nothing  to  them  until 


April ; then  cut  all  small  shoots  off  close ; that  is  to  say,  clear  them 
right  away ; cut  down  the  strong  ones  to  two,  three,  or  at  most,  four 


62 


PRUNING. 


eyes,  care  being  taken  that  the  top  eye  is  pointing  onward;  the  ob- 
ject of  this  is  to  obtain  strong  branches  growing  outward,  to  make  a 
wide  head.  As  the  shoots  grow,  notice  the  best  and  strongest  that  are 
growing  in  a position  to  widen  the  head,  and  leave  them  to  make  all 
the  growth  they  can ; allow  any  shoot  that  is  growing  up  strong  in  the 
centre  to  grow  also ; and  further,  a most  important  point,  rub  off,  or 
cut  off  with  a very  sharp  knife,  all  weakly  growing  shoots,  all  that 
grow  inward  and  cross  the  head,  and  wherever  two  cross  each  other, 
remove  the  weakest.  The  branches  that  grow  outward  will  be  good 


enough  and  well  enough  in  one  season’s  growth  to  leave  any  length 
you  please  towards  making  a proper  sized  head ; but  as  five  or  six  of 
these  branches  will  not  make  a full  head,  the  next  season  they  may  be 
shortened  to  half  their  growth,  taking  care  that  the  end  bud  must  be 
an  under  one,  for  all  the  tendency  of  the  Rose  is  to  grow  upward,  and 
it  is  only  when  the  natural  growth  is  outward,  or  downward,  that  the 
weight  prevails  to  keep  it  in  a horizontal  or  drooping  position.  This 
second  year,  and  indeed  every  subsequent  year,  every  branch  that  does 
not  assist  to  form  a handsome  head  without  crowding,  must  be  taken 


PRUNING. 


63 


away,  and  the  younger  it  is  when  taken,  the  more  good  its  removal 
does,  because  the  other  branches  get  the  better. 

With  regard  to  any  one  or  two,  or  even  three  upright  branches, 
though  one  strong  one  is  worth  three  weakly  ones,  they  may  be  short- 
ened down  so  that  two  or  three  good  eyes  may  be  fairly  above  the 
other  branches,  and  that  when  they  grow  outward  the  next  season, 
they  may  help  fill  up  the  head  of  the  tree  above;  when  the  eyes 
begin  to  shoot,  rub  out  all  that  come  where  they  are  not  required,  and 
leave  those  of  which  you  are  yet  doubtful,  as  well  as  those  you  know 
will  be  wanted,  because  it  is  at  this  period  you  have  such  control  by 


driving  the  whole  strength  of  the  tree  into  the  branches  that  are 
wanted.  In  this  way,  you  proceed  until  the  head  of  the  tree  is  the 
proper  form  and  proportion,  instead  of,  as  we  now  see  them  every- 
where, a small,  pimping,  ungraceful  head  to  a tall  stem,  or  trunk. 
When  once  it  has  arrived  at  this  perfection,  which,  with  very  little 
care  and  attention,  it  will,  you  may  cut  back  every  year’s  wood  to  two 
eyes ; cut  out  every  weak  shoot  altogether,  if  you  have  not  rubbed  it 
off  in  the  bud ; cut  out  all  that  are  in  the  way  of  free  growth  for  the 
rest,  and  when  any  portion  is  confused  by  reason  of  the  number  of 


64 


PRUNING. 


spurs  or  shortened  branches  left  on,  clear  away  a bit  by  cutting  them 
off.  Always  remember  that  Standard  Roses  for  appearance  should  not 
be  too  closely  pruned;  but  for  showing,  when  the  individual  blooms 
are  shown,  a multiplicity  of  flowers  is  against  size.  We  can  hardlv 
recommend  too  strongly  the  necessity  of  what  we  shall  call  spring 
pruning,  which  is,  in  fact,  nipping  the  mischief  in  the  bud,  watching 
the  development  of  the  newly  coming  branches,  and  removing  all  but 
the  number  there  is  good  room  for ; and  as  this  has  not  been  treated 
of  at  any  length,  if  at  all,  we  may  fairly  request  attention  to  it. 

The  three  cuts  which  are  in  illustration  of  this  article,  though  not 
very  accurate,  show  the  first  year’s  growth  of  two  buds  placed  in  a 
stock,  with  dotted  lines  at  the  place  we  should  cut  them ; the  second 
year’s  growth  after  such  cutting,  with  dotted  lines  where  we  should 
cut  them  again;  and  the  third  year’s  growth  is  indicated  by  lines 
which  give  some  idea  of  it.  But  neither  of  these  cuts  is  exactly  what 
we  like ; first,  because  our  pen  and  ink  sketches  were  imperfect,  we 
being  unable  to  draw  exactly  what  we  wanted ; and  secondly,  because 
the  artist,  who  could  have  drawn  it,  did  not  know  what  we  wanted. 
There  is  enough,  however,  done  to  assist  in  our  lesson  on  Pruning 
Standards,  though  not  to  the  extent  we  wished. 

* 

Pruning  and  Training  Pillar  Roses. 

Although  we  have  touched  on  the  pruning  of  bushes,  and  upon  the 
pruning  of  climbers  when  first  planted,  it  only  related  to  the  mere 
operation  of  pruning  them  for  growth,  in  the  position  they  were  to 
remain  ; and  here,  for  the  sake  of  the  poor  roses  themselves,  and  the 
pillars  they  are  to  ornament,  we  will  suppose  they  are  cut  down  to  the 
ground,  or  nearly  so,  and  have  made  a fresh  growth,  or  rather  are 
making  fresh  growth.  Pillars  for  roses  ought  to  be  a foot  in  diameter, 
and  are  best  made  of  trellis  work  or  rods  of  iron,  or,  if  it  must  be  feo, 
of  wood;  but  they  ought  to  be  one  foot  through.  As  the  leading 
shoots  come,  they  ought  to  be  wound  spirally  round  the  pillar,  at  such 
distance  from  each  other  as  will  enable  them  to  fill  up  the  space  be- 
tween with  foliage ; their  leading  shoots  then  constitute  the  tree,  and 
all  the  side  shoots  bear  their  blooms,  and  form  a pillar  of  roses.  We 
do  not  mean  that  this  is  all  done  in  a year,  though  some  kinds  go  a 


PRUNING. 


65 


long  way  towards  it;  here,  as  in  all  other  cases  of  rose  pruning,  the 
little  weak  shoots  must  be  removed,  the  strongest  left  on  all  the  way 
up,  and  should  be  shortened  to  two  eyes.  If  the  tops  here  die  down 
at  all,  shorten  them  to  the  strong  top  eye,  not  to  the  top  eye,  for  seve- 
ral near  the  top  may  be  found  weak,  and  they  would  never  be  other- 
wise, whereas  the  stronger  one  will  grow  fast,  and  soon  supply  the 
place  of  the  old  top. 

When  the  buds  first  show  in  spring,  it  will  be  right  to  go  over  the 
roses  carefully,  to  remove  any  that  are  in  the  way ; and  the  growth 
of  some  roses  will  be  found  so  different  to  that  of  others,  that  one  sort 
will  want  enormous  room  to  develop  its  shoots  and  blooms,  while 
another  will  make  but  short  branches  and  bloom  abundantly.  These 
characteristics  will  be  discovered  in  a year’s  growth,  if  not  well  ex- 
plained beforehand,  and  the  provision  can  be  made  accordingly.  Many 
Pillar  or  Climbing  Roses  are  made  to  run  over  arches  from  pillar  to 
pillar,  or  along  festoons  from  pillar  to  pillar ; the  best  way  to  manage 
those  parts  which  form  the  arch,  or  festoon,  is  merely  to  thin  out  their 
weak  branches  without  shortening  their  strong  ones,  because  they 
will  bloom  more  abundantly,  which  is  the  great  charm ; and  the  loose 
and  free  manner  in  which  they  hang  about  will  be  to  their  advantage, 
so  they  be  kept  within  bounds  a little. 

Pruning  and  Training  Roses  on  Plat  Trellises,  Walls,  and 
Fronts  of  Houses. 

The  management  of  this  family  is  very  similar  to  that  of  Pillar  Roses, 
except  that  the  leading  shoots  must  be  encouraged  to  grow  the  best 
way  to  fill  up  the  space  allotted  to  the  plant,  for  which  purpose  it  will 
be  advisable,  in  some  cases,  to  train  the  strongest  two  shoots  horizon- 
tally right  and  left  along  the  bottom;  or  if  the  space  to  cover  be  only 
one  way,  to  train  one  strong  shoot  along  the  bottom,  and  turn  it  up  at 
the  end  ; if  it  reach  further,  the  rest  of  the  strong  shoots  may  be  fanned 
out  at  equidistances,  and  all  the  weak  joints  removed.  The  next  year, 
rub  off  the  buds  that  are  coming  where  they  are  not  wanted.  Allow 
any  strong  shoots  that  come  up  from  the  bottom  horizontal  shoot,  to 
grow  as  much  as  they  will,  but  no  weak  ones.  A fast-growing  Rose 
will  soon  cover  a house  front,  a trellis,  or  wall,  and  flower  all  over. 


66 


PRUNING. 


When  the  space  gets  filled,  you  must  continue  cutting  out,  from  year 
to  year,  all  thin,  spindley  shoots,  and  spare  the  strong  ones,  so  that  the 
stongest  eyes  only  are  developed,  instead  of  all  of  them ; and  the  Roses 
are  closely  set  to  their  wall  or  trellis,  instead  of  hanging  lolloping 
about;  the  very  thing  which  is  good  on  a pillar,  or  an  arbor,  or  over 
an  archway,  or  on  festoons,  being  the  reverse  on  a flat  surface.  As  a 
never-failing  operation,  however,  in  all  cases,  the  weak,  spindley  shoots 
may  always  be  removed,  whether  the  strong  wood  be  shortened  or 
not. 

Pruning  of  Standards  on  Their  Own  Bottoms,  or  Boots. 

It  is  very  common  to  see  among  Dwarf  or  Bush  Roses,  a strong 
shoot  growing  upright,  a sucker  from  the  root ; and  it  is  frequently 
the  case  that  these  will  rise  up  to  five  or  six  feet  high.  In  the  Moss 
Roses,  this  is  often  to  be  found.  These  may  always  be  trained  into 
standard  trees,  with  heads  in  every  way  proportioned  to  the  stem. 
As  soon  as  a vigorous  shoot  of  this  kind  makes  its  appearance,  cut  in 
the  bush  at  bottom  rather  hard,  as  it  will  tend  to  strengthen  the  root, 
which  will  be  relieved  of  some  of  its  work  by  the  operation.  When 
the  shoot  has  attained  the  required  height,  pinch  off  the  top  ; this  will 
encourage  side  shoots,  all  of  which,  except  the  two  or  three  at  the  top, 
must  be  rubbed  off.  It  rarely  occurs,  however,  that  any  side  growth 
is  made  the  first  season ; so  that  the  better  way,  unless  the  shoot  be 
getting  too  long  early  in  the  season,  is  to  let  it  ripen  its  wood.  The 
latter  part  of  the  autumn,  you  may  look  at  the  root,  to  see  what  state 
it  is  in,  and  how  far  it  may  be  dependent  on  the  main  root.  If  it  be 
closely  joined,  so  that  there  would  not  be  sufficient  root  if  separated, 
the  old  bush  must  be  sacrificed,  and  the  root  secured  for  the  standard. 
As  the  upper  part  of  the  shoot  may  not  be  well  ripened,  it  will  be  as 
well  to  bind  a hay  band  round  it,  or  tie  some  moss  or  other  litter,  to 
save  it  from  sharp  frost,  though  moderate  ones  will  not  injure. 

In  the  spring,  cut  the  end  off  as  low  down  as  will  do  for  your  pur- 
pose, and  when  the  buds  shoot  out,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  three  or 
four  upper  ones  come  first ; all  others  on  the  stem  must  be  rubbed  off. 
Nor  is  it  any  great  use  having  two  buds  on  the  same  side  of  the  tree ; 
if  you  can  manage  to  have  three,  or  even  four,  within  a few  inches  of 
the  top,  pointing  different  ways,  they  will  form  the  better  hold  of  it,  to 


GENERAL  HINTS. 


67 


strengthen  the  other  portion  of  the  tree.  Continue  to  be  watchful  as 
to  other  buds  that  will  be  continually  pushing  from  the  main  stem,  and 
let  not  one  grow  but  those  you  have  selected  for  the  head. 

At  the  end  of  the  year,  these  will  have  made  considerable  growth, 
and,  instead  of  being  cut  back  the  next  spring  to  two  eyes,  as  is  the 
case  with  many,  cut  them  back  only  so  far  as  to  insure  the  strength 
of  the  remainder,  say,  so  as  to  leave  five  or  six  eyes.  The  next  season 
of  growth,  there  will,  out  of  three  or  four  branches,  come  four  or  five 
branches  each.  Those  which  come  in  their  places,  to  help  form  a 
handsome  head,  may  be  allowed  to  grow;  but  if  any  come  so  as  to 
cross  others,  or  where  there  is  plenty  of  growth  already,  let  them  be 
rubbed  off;  but  it  is  quite  possible  for  an  eye  to  shoot  where  it  is  not 
wanted,  and  yet  the  first  or  second  eye  of  that  shoot  may  be  in  a 
direction  to  fill  up  a vacancy  where  it  is  necessary ; this  must,  of 
course,  be  looked  to  before  buds  are  rubbed  off.  These  branches,  when 
grown  another  season,  will  stretch  out  the  head  on  all  sides  to  a re- 
spectable size,  and  enable  you  to  thin  out  the  weak  wood,  and  cutback 
the  strong;  so  that  instead  of  having  the  head  pimping  and  small,  it 
may  bear  a proportion  to  the  stem ; for,  as  we  have  said  before,  the 
head  ought  to  be  as  wide  across  as  the  stem  is  long  from  the  ground, 
to  the  under  part  of  the  head.  There  is  one  thing  to  be  observed  with 
regard  to  standards  on  their  own  bottom : they  never  break  off,  nor 
decay,  nor  canker,  half  so  much  as  budded  and  grafted  ones. 


GENERAL  HINTS. 

We  may  mention,  as  a general  characteristic,  that  there  is  no  plant 
which  yields  more  willingly  to  culture  than  the  Rose,  nor  in  the 
growth  of  which  there  is  so  much  certainty.  If  you  desire  a large 
quantity  of  bloom,  and  are  not  anxious  about  the  size  of  the  flowers, 
there  is  nothing  required  but  to  spare  the  knife ; take  out  weak  shoots, 
but  leave  plenty  of  wood  on  the  tree ; for  every  eye  will  bloom,  and 


68 


GENERAL  HINT3. 


the  more  you  leave  on,  the  better  for  that  purpose.  In  this  case,  the 
new  wood  made  is  but  short,  because  there  is  so  much  of  it.  If,  on 
the  contrary,  you  desire  large  blooms,  cut  away  all  the  strong  wood, 
of  the  year  previous,  down  to  two  eyes  at  the  most,  and  cut  all  the 
weak  wood  out  altogether.  Indeed,  you  may  go  further;  for  you 
may  cut  away  half  the  strong  snoots,  and  lessen  the  number  of  eyes 
still  more. 

Again,  roses  in  poor  soil  will  grow  and  bloom ; their  flowers  will  be 
smaller,  but  not  less  healthy ; their  wood  will  be  weaker  and  shorter, 
but  still  sound.  The  principal  danger  when  a Rose  is  starved  is,  that 
it  may  come  less  double ; and  this  is  so  serious  a fault,  that  it  has 
occasioned  many  to  be  thrown  away  that  did  not  deserve  it,  and 
caused  many  others  to  be  considered  wrong  varieties,  when  they 
wanted  nothing  but  good  growth  to  make  them  right  ones.  On  the 
other  hand,  rich  soils  will  cause  a Rose  to  grow  enormously ; and  all 
intermediate  growths  between  the  strongest  and  the  weakest  may  be 
secured  according  to  the  soil  they  are  put  in  to  grow.  Generally, 
people  fancy  that  dung  is  the  only  thing  required ; this  is  a mistake, 
loam  is  required  to  grow  the  Rose  in  perfection ; and  if  the  ground  is 
poor  and  light,  a spadeful  of  loam  and  a spadeful  of  dung  will  be  far 
better  than  two  spadefuls  of  dung.  This  ought  to  be  always  mixed 
with  the  soil  a little,  and  the  Rose  planted  in  it. 

Roses  are  sadly  injured  by  the  wind,  and  the  blooms  require  fasten- 
ing to  something  or  other,  to  prevent  their  being  frayed.  The  stakes 
of  roses  should  always  be  made  fast  to  the  Rose,  or  the  roses  made  fast 
to  the  stakes  with  leaden  or  copper  wire ; because  bass  matting,  or 
other  perishable  stuff,  will  give  way  when  high  wind  takes  them,  and 
they  receive  a good  deal  of  mischief  before  they  are  observed  and 
fastened  again. 

Of  the  roses  at  present  in  cultivation,  very  few  which  are  not  semi- 
double will  open  out  boldly ; and  those  which  are  semi-double,  are 
not  fit  to  show  as  single  flowers.  There  are,  however,  some  which 
will  bear  the  test  of  stand-showing,  and  they  not  of  the  dearest  or 
newest.  Those,  therefore,  who  desire  to  grow  none  but  perfect 
flowers,  should  state  to  the  dealer,  of  whom  they  mean  to  buy,  that 
their  object  is  to  have  none  but  such  as  will  expand  and  show  a good 
face  when  fully  bloomed,  as  they  purpose  growing  none  others.  The 


GENERAL  HINTS. 


69 


establishment  of  the  showing  in  stands,  like  dahlias,  will  cause  many 
old  and  fine^  roses  to  be  appreciated,  and  a great  many  new  ones  to  be 
discarded ; for  although  it  is  not  the  gayest  mode  of  exhibiting  roses, 
it  is  by  far  the  best  mode  of  testing,  and  it  is  curious  to  see  the  num- 
ber of  varieties  with  very  glaring  faults.  For  instance,  some  are  close 
balls  of  petals,  with  the  outer  ones  rolling  back  a little,  as  if  they  were 
shrivelling;  but  never  opening  fairly.  Others  no  sooner  open  than 
they  show  their  yellow  seeds  and  their  paucity  of  petals : some  are  on 
stems  too  weak  to  hold  them  in  their  position ; others,  again,  burst 
into  a broken  mass  of  ill-formed  petals,  that  do  not  compensate  for 
their  sweetness.  Some  fall  to  pieces  the  instant  they  are  open,  and 
others  almost  before  they  open  ; many  are  shapeless  masses  of  colored 
flimsy  texture,  that  neither  hold  themselves  in  form  nor  impart  fra- 
grance. It  is  worth  while  to  direct  the  attention  of  the  amateur  to 
the  large  collections  of  roses  sometimes  to  be  seen  at  exhibitions,  and 
to  the  very  few  which  are  to  be  found  among  them  of  a fine  form. 
They  will  observe  bunches  of  half-bloomed  flowers,  that  dare  not  be 
shown ; they  will  find  plenty  of  hard  lumps,  on  stems  not  strong 
enough  to  bear  them  without  lolloping  about;  they  will  find  some 
without  a round  smooth  petal  among  them,  but  very  few  so  good  as 
the  Tuscan,  the  Cabbage,  the  Moss,  the  Provence,  and  the  oldest  of 
the  known  good  varieties.  This  shows  the  necessity  of  attention  to 
the  hints  we  have  thrown  out;  for  we  must  again  confess,  that 
although  we  have  selected  the  best  among  eleven  or  twelve  hundred 
roses,  there  are  many  that  we  shall  see  rejected  like  the  remainder  of 
the  entire  collection,  to  make  way  for  better  flowers  and  better  taste*. 

As  a concluding  observation  respecting  the  management  of  the 
Rose,  we  are  bound  to  say,  that  a good  deal  that  is  done  now  is 
erroneous,  although  taught  by  rose  cultivators ; and  especially  with 
regard  to  roses  in  pots,  which,  however  pretty  they  may  look,  are 
very  much  drawn,  and  very  unnaturally  supported.  That  the  system, 
if  pursued,  will  lead  to  the  introduction  and  toleration  Of  varieties 
which  cannot  support  themselves,  in  the  same  manner  as  it  did  to  the 
introduction  of  worthless  geraniums,  there  is  no  room  to  doubt ; for 
in  the  specimens  exhibited  in  pots  at  various  shows,  the  total  inability 
of  the  flowers  and  stems  to  support  themselves  is  manifested,  as  well 
as  the  dispositions  to  encourage  this  strange  mode  of  distorting  things. 
Some  allowance  should  be  made  for  any  forced  subject;  but  that 


70 


GENERAL  HINTS. 


gardener  who  can  produce  his  plants  without  supports,  is  the  ono 
who  deserves  a prize  for  his  skill ; not  the  man  who  draws  a plant  till 
it  cannot  support  itself,  and  then  keeps  it  up  with  framework. 

There  is  much  to  be  done  in  the  choice  of  roses,  for  particular 
objects.  Those  inclined  to  droop  should  be  on  very  tall  stalks,  for 
their  pendulous  habit  is  very  handsome,  and  renders  the  tree  a beau- 
tiful drooping  object;  those  for  bushes  ought  to  be  short  jointed  and 
close  habited,  as  best  suited  to  dwarfs,  and  so  also  will  they  be  found 
for  dwarf  standards. 

The  general  routine  for  rose  culture  is  given  both  as  respects  the 
general  collection,  and  also  for  seedlings ; and  with  attention  to  what 
has  been  here  written,  we  think  a mere  novice  may,  with  a little 
enterprise,  beat  one  who  grows  upon  any  other  system. 

Few  people  are  aware  of  the  injustice  sometimes  done  to  roses, 
which  are  condemned  as  worthless,  when  the  culture  alone  is  the 
cause  of  their  misbehavior.  The  Rose  is  a fidgety  customer.  The 
French  people  are  famous  for  raising  new  varieties,  and  describing 
them  as  very  superb ; the  English  and  American  nurserymen  buy 
them  as  soon  as  they  can  be  obtained,  and  describe  them  to  their 
customers  as  something  recherche;  they  are  purchased  by  amateur 
cultivators  upon  the  strength  of  such  characters,  grown  for  a 
year,  and  too  often  thrown  away  as  worthless.  Once  for  all,  let  us 
inform  our  readers,  that  no  Rose  can  be  depended  on  for  growing  to 
its  character  under  the  third  season.  The  effect  of  poor  culture  is  to 
make  a Double  Rose  semi-double  and  single ; and  that  which  would 
be  rich  culture  to  anything  else,  may  be  poor  to  the  Rose,  because  if 
it  be  not  suitable,  it  may  as  well  be  poor. 

There  are  many  things  which  affect  the  Rose,  but  the  principal  one 
is  tantamount  to  saying  that  it  does  not  feel  itself  at  home.  European 
nurserymen  often  propagate  roses  rather  too  mechanically  ; the  greater 
part  of  them  are  “ made  to  sell.”  So  long  as  the  stock  will  keep  the 
bud  alive,  and  let  it  grow,  that  is  all  the  nurseryman  asks  or  wishes. 
Now,  it  is  quite  certain  that  a stock  without  much  root  will  live,  and 
hundreds  of  plants  sent  from  abroad  are  of  this  description.  There 
may  be  strength  enough  in  the  stock  to  grow  and  bloom  the  kind 
upon  it,  but  as  the  stock  is  not  fairly  at  home,  the  first  year  is  often 
wasted  in  making  root  enough  to  lay  hold  of  the  ground,  and  during 
this  period,  the  head  is  grown  but  poorly. 


GENERAL  HINTS. 


71 


As  to  blooming,  it  should  not  be  allowed  until  the  growth  is  vigor- 
ous, for  it  comes  miserably  poor,  if  at  all.  The  second  year,  it  is  more 
reconciled  to  its  place,  and  the  third  may  be  considered  a fair  trial. 
Take  the  very  best  Rose  we  have,  and  grow  it  badly,  the  result  will 
be  bad  flowers ; but,  if  this  be  the  case  with  well-known  varieties, 
liow  caulious  ought  we  to  be  of  condemning  a candidate  for  our  favors 
when  we  have  no  evidence  of  its  real  character.  Rose  growers  say 
it  is  impossible  to  tell,  after  a removal,  what  a Rose  ought  to  be  by 
what  it  is;  that  it  ought  to  be  tried  three  seasons  before  condemna- 
tion, and  not  be  discarded  under  an  idea  that  it  is  useless,  merely 
because  it  flowers  badly,  which  is  not  always  the  case.  A Rose  will 
sometimes  be  for  several  years  only  middling,  when,  if  it  liked  the 
ground,  it  would  be  excellent. 

When  you  have  a Rose,  first  you  should  cut  away  all  bruised  parts 
of  the  root,  and  see  that  all  the  broken  ends  of  the  shoots  in  the 
ground,  or  root  shoots,  are  smooth ; then  plant  it  the  first  year  in 
good  strong  fresh  loam,  from  a pasture.  If  rotten  dung  be  at  the 
bottom,  so  much  the  better,  but  do  not  let  the  dung  touch  the  roots. 
Cut  nothing  back  of  the  head  or  bud  shoot,  or  if  it  be  an  established 
head,  cut  nothing  back  until  you  see  the  buds  swelling,  so  as  to  enable 
you  to  calculate  what  portion  is  alive,  and  what  has  died  back.  As 
soon  as  this  is  indicated  by  the  growing  of  the  buds,  cut  away  clean 
to  the  tree  all  the  branches  which  may  have  perished.  When  these 
are  removed,  you  see  what  head  you  have  to  depend  on,  and  how 
much  you  may  cut  back  without  losing  an  opportunity  of  forming  or 
improving  a head  for  the  next  season.  For  instance,  all  the  branches 
but  one  will  often  die  back,  and  be  forced  to  be  removed  by  the  knife. 
Had  the  pruning  at  first  been  close,  and  each  branch  cut  back  to  two 
eyes,  there  would  be  but  two,  of  course,  left  on  the  only  living  one, 
and  but  two  shoots  could  be  had  from  them ; having,  however,  dis- 
covered that  but  one  branch  is  left,  this  has  to  be  preserved  somewhat 
longer,  and  therefore  should  be  pruned  to  four  or  five,  instead  of  two 
eyes.  These  may  be  managed  to  form  branches  all  round  the  tree,  or 
rather  at  such  distance  as  prudence  dictates,  due  regard  being  had  to 
the  strength  of  the  plant.  If  the  tree  takes  off  vigorously,  and  the 
wood  grows  very  strong,  the  bloom  is  pretty  sure  to  be  inferior,  as 
indeed  is  the  case  when  almost  any  plant  runs  to  wood ; so  that  it  is 


72 


GENERAL  HINTS. 


quite  as  unlikely  that  the  bloom  of  the  Rose  is  in  character  when  the 
plant  is  too  vigorous,  as  when  it  is  meagre  or  too  much  starved 

Hybridising  has  done  much  good  for  roses,  but  it  has  also  done  its 
mischief;  for,  if  it  has  introduced  some  splendid  varieties,  it  has  teased 
us  with  hundreds  not  worth  growing ; some,  which  are  close  hard 
lumps  of  rolled-up  petals,  turn  over  their  thin  edges  like  a dog- 
eared book ; the  backs  of  the  petals  a dull  color,  scarcely  any  scent  to 
them,  and  altogether  bad  openers,  and  bad  if  they  can  be  made  to 
open.  There  is  no  reason  why  the  Rose  should  not  be  as  perfect  as 
the  Camellia  japonica.  There  are  some  of  the  Bourbons  with  petals 
as  smooth  and  as  thick,  and  almost  as  regular;  and  these  are  the 
kinds  to  buy  and  grow.  They  hold  their  form  longer  and  better  than 
those  with  thin  petals ; they  open  more  freely,  and  are  better  when 
they  do  open.  The  habits  of  these  full-flowered  plants  are  better ; 
the  flowers,  instead  of  lolloping  their  heads  down,  show  themselves 
well.  All  the  full  free  opening  roses  of  old  age  are  of  this  descrip- 
tion ; witness  the  Cabbage  Rose,  the  Maiden’s  Blush,  the  Provence, 
and  some  others,  which  are  as  familiar  as  the  name  of  the  Rose  itself. 
It  is  true  that  the  bud  of  a Rose  is  pretty,  and  that  a bunch  of  roses 
is  pretty,  but  while  We  have  good  roses  that  will  open,  and  of  almost 
every  color,  it  is  unnecessary  to  grow  bad  ones ; and  if  the  character 
of  roses  is  established  by  showing  single  blooms,  which  shall  be 
required  to  be  open,  there  will  be  but  little  difficulty  in  doing  all  the 
rest. 

Nevertheless,  on  receiving  roses  from  nurseries,  whether  American 
or  foreign,  pay  attention  to  these  directions  in  the  planting,  and  be 
not  in  a hurry  to  condemn.  Let  them  fail  the  first  season,  and  be 
even  middling  only  the  second,  but  give  them  the  benefit  of  the  doubt, 
and  try  them  a third  season.  Convince  yourself  that  the  variety  is 
incapable  of  becoming  better,  and  that  you  have  seen  their  natural 
habit,  before  you  throw  them  away.  If  a petal  is  thin  and  curly, 
rough-edged  and  flimsy,  it  can  never  be  good ; if  the  petals  are  good, 
but  there  are  too  few  of  them,  there  is  great  hope  that  culture  will 
improve  it  from  a semi-double  to  a perfect  double,  which  is  all  that  is 
wanted. 


CALENDAR  OF  OPERATIONS. 


73 


CALENDAR  OF  OPERATIONS. 


The  following  Calendar  for  the  management  of  the  Rose,  during 
each  month  of  the  year,  is  designed  for  the  central  parts  of  the  United 
States,  including  the  temperate  regions  of  Maryland,  Virginia,  Ohio, 
Kentucky,  Indiana,  Missouri,  and  Illinois.  The  season  of  spring  com- 
mences in  the  middle  latitudes  of  Greorgia,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  and 
of  Texas,  and  the  northern  part  of  Louisiana,  and  the  southern  part 
of  Arkansas,  about  one  month  earlier;  and  a month  or  five  weeks 
later  in  Rhode  Island,  Massachusetts,  and  in  the  central  latitudes  of 
New  York,  Wisconsin,  and  of  Michigan.  The  period  of  sowing,  how- 
ever, will  admit  of  some  latitude,  on  account  of  the  degree  of  dryness 
of  the  soil,  and  of  its  exposure  to  cold  or  moist  winds,  and  to  the  solar 
warmth. 

It  has  long  been  observed  that  Nature,  in  her  operations,  is  so  uni- 
form, that  the  forwardness  of  trees,  in  unfolding  their  flowers  and 
leaves,  is  an  unerring  indication  of  the  forwardness  of  spring;  and 
that  the  period  at  which  the  shrub  red  bud  ( Cercis  canadensis)  puts 
forth,  is  the  proper  time  to  plant  Indian  corn,  and  sow  in  open  cul- 
ture the  seeds  of  the  Rose. 


jlanuarj. 

Look  well  to  all  standard  roses ; see  that  their  stakes  are  firmly  in 
the  ground,  and  the  stocks  or  trunks  are  well  fastened  to  them.  If  the 
heads  of  standards  are  very  large,  compared  with  the  hold  they  have 
upon  the  stock,  it  is  necessary  that  the  stock  to  which  the  tree  is  fast- 
ened should  reach  partly  through  the  head,  and  be  fastened  to  the 
head  itself.  It  is  also  desirable,  when  very  large  growth  has  been 
made,  to  shorten,  though  not  properly  prune,  all  the  longest  branches, 
to  lessen  the  head,  that  the  wind  may  not  have  too  much  power.  If 
you  have  not  provided  yourself  with  stocks  before  this  month,  lose  no 
time,  and  when  procured,  prune  the  roots  into  moderate  form,  for  they 
will  frequently  be  found  straggling  and  awkward.  Resides  planting 
out  a number  in  rows,  to  be  worked  in  the  open  ground,  pot  some  of 
the  most  compact-rooted  in  pots,  and  plunge  them,  making  a post-and- 
rail  sort  of  frame  along  them  to  fasten  the  stocks  to,  and  prevent  them 

4 


74 


CAIENDAR  OF  OPERATIONS. 


from  being  disturbed  by  the  wind ; also,  if  you  have  not  got  in  all  the 
roses  you  want,  order  them  and  plant. 

Protect  the  smooth- wooded  kinds,  budded  on  the  stocks,  in  pots, 
from  the  cold,  and  see  that  those  in  beds  are  well  covered  with  litter 
where  there  is  danger  of  their  suffering  from  frost ; and,  as  the  smooth- 
wooded  varieties  budded  in  pots  will  be  growing,  support  their  shoots 
and  remove  all  other  eyes  from  the  stocks  the  instant  they  break. 

At  the  North , where  roses  in  parlors  and  greenhouses  are  coming 
into  flower,  syringe  the  plants  freely  with  water,  and  occasionally  with 
a solution  of  Peruvian  guano,  mixed  in  the  proportion  of  half  a pint 
of  guano  to  eight  gallons  of  water.  Fumigate  often  with  tobacco,  in 
order  to  keep  down  the  green  fly ; and  with  sulphur,  to  kill  the  red 
spider. 

j^ebruar#. 

Look  over  the  established  stocks,  and  see  which  are  most  favorable 
for  grafting ; and  if  you  have  any  wood  of  roses  you  intend  to  graft, 
leave  it  on  the  trees;  but  if  you  have  to  obtain  wood,  seek  for  it  in 
time ; and  if  you  get  it,  plant  the  thickest  end  downward  in  the 
ground,  in  some  shady  place,  because  they  ought  not  to  be  grafted  till 
next  month,  and  the  cuttings  will  keep  some  time.  The  China  Roses 
in  the  house,  and  roses  in  the  forcing  house,  must  be  kept  well  syringed, 
and  watched  carefully,  that,  in  the  event  of  the  green  fly  attacking  them, 
they  may  be  fumigated,  as  well  as  syringed.  Roses  in  pots  should  be 
kept  a little  moist,  and  if  not  pruned  in  autumn,  should  be  pruned 
directly.  Look  to  a supply  of  wild  stocks,  if  you  have  not  yet  com- 
pleted your  arrangements. 

Bruise  the  berries  which  have  been  saved  for  seed,  and  rub  out  the 
seed  ready  for  sowing  next  month. 

At  the  North , continue  the  same  treatment  as  recommended  last 
month. 

Pt  a r c !)  • 

Prune  all  roses  which  were  left  half  done  in  the  autumn,  or  not  done 
at  all,  especially  grafted  and  budded  ones  of  last  year,  as  they  have 
this  year  to  make  some  growth.  Stocks  may  still  do  if  the  season  is 
backward,  but  not  a day  must  be  lost.  Look  over  all  the  standard 


CALENDAR  OF  OPERATIONS. 


75 


trees,  examine  the  pushing  buds,  trim  out  all  weak  shoots  from  the 
buds,  and  cut  away  all  shoots  from  the  stock.  This  must  be  always 
considered  of  first  consequence,  for  the  growth  of  a branch  from  a stock 
will  completely  check  the  growth  of  the  head.  All  grafted  and  budded 
trees,  when  once  fairly  growing,  should  be  deprived  of  all  means  of 
growth  from  the  stock  itself.  It  is  not  wise  to  destroy  altogether  the 
growth  of  the  stock  above  the  graft  or  bud,  until  the  union  and  sub- 
sequent growth  of  the  graft  or  bud  itself  are  well  established ; but  this 
once  accomplished,  leave  no  vestige  of  growth  belonging  to  the  stock, 
and  constantly  rub  off  every  bud.  You  may  commence  grafting  this 
month. 

Sow  the  seeds  in  large  pots  or  deep  pans,  and  keep  them  from  onco 
getting  dry,  or  being  frosted. 

At  the  North , hardy  roses  may  be  safely  pruned  the  last  of  this 
month. 

If  any  suckers  appear  among  established  roses  or  stocks,  worked  or 
unworked,  remove  the  earth  down  to  where  they  join  the  root,  and 
cut  them  off  close.  If  the  rose  quarter  is  at  all  infested  with  snails  or 
slugs,  use  all  means  to  destroy  them.  Inverted  flower  pots,  tilted  on 
one  side,  will  catch  many  snails ; cabbage  leaves  laid  on  the  ground, 
and  examined  daily,  will  entrap  slugs.  All  stocks  on  which  grafts  or 
buds  failed  last  season  must  be  looked  upon  as  new  stocks,  and  cut 
down  to  where  they  appear  alive.  The  shoots  upon  which  buds  were 
placed  should  be  cut  off  close,  as  well  as  side  growths,  if  they  are 
intended  for  budding,  but  if  for  grafting,  the  inside  shoots  may  be 
strong  enough  to  graft  on ; if  the  grafts,  and  the  shoot  grafted  on,  be 
nearly  alike,  the  graft  may  be  all  the  safer,  and  the  place  of  union 
more  completely  healed  than  when  small  grafts  are  placed  in  large 
stocks.  This  month  is  a good  one  for  grafting  or  spring  budding, 
though  the  operation  may  be  performed  successfully  in  March.  Cut 
back  to  two  eyes  all  that  have  been  left  unpruned,  by  which  late 
pruning  back,  the  blooming  will  be  protracted  considerably. 

Keep  the  seeds  sown  last  month,  moist ; and  if  the  season  be  dry, 
moisten  them  by  laying  on  the  surface  some  wet  moss.  Shade  them, 
also,  from  the  hot  sun. 

At  the  North , hardy  roses  of  all  kinds  should  now  be  pruned,  Moss 


76 


CALENDAR  OF  OPERATIONS. 


Roses  cut  back  short.  Rose  seeds  may  be  sown  the  last  of  this  month 
or  early  in  May.  Spring  budding  may  also  be  performed. 

i&ag. 

This  is  an  important  month  with  the  Rose.  First  and  foremost, 
the  vigilance  in  looking  for  the  breaking  buds  of  stocks,  which  would 
rob  the  head  of  its  growth,  must  be-  doubled,  and  every  three  or  four 
days  they  must  be  examined  and  rubbed  off.  Suckers  must  also  be 
grubbed  up  the  instant  they  appear.  The  shoots  of  the  buds  of  last 
year  will  make  rapid  growth,  and  require  to  be  screened,  that  the 
wind  may  not  break  them  out  or  damage  them ; and  it  is  a very  good 
plan  to  tie  a stick  to  the  stem,  to  reach  a foot  above  it,  and  this  does 
well  to  support  any  of  the  shoots.  But  when  a bud  throws  up  a very 
strong  shoot,  it  is  well  to  take  the  top  off  as  soon  as  there  are  two  pair 
of  leaves,  for  it  will  make  the  shoot  form  a head  the  first  season ; but, 
in  any  case,  the  shoots  must  be  supported  by  a loose  tie  to  the  stick 
above  mentioned. 

The  young  seedlings  will  be  up  this  month,  and  will  require  great 
care  to  keep  them  from  damaging  by  too  much  wet,  or  burning  up  for 
want  of  moisture. 

At  the  North , Tea,  Bengal,  Noisette  and  other  roses  may  now  be 
planted  out  in  borders.  Rose  seed  may  be  sown  early  in  this  month, 
and  spring  budding  performed. 

June. 

This  month,  great  diligence  must  be  used  to  prevent  the  stocks  from 
growing  from  their  own  wood,  instead  of  throwing  all  their  stength 
into  the  grafts  and  buds.  It  is  time  also  to  be  looking  out  for  sorts  you 
intend  to  bud  with,  either  by  buying  the  plants  outright,  or  bespeak- 
ing buds  for  the  season ; and  if  any  come  in  your  way  about  the  end 
of  the  month,  do  not  be  afraid  of  budding  on  the  strongest  wood  you 
can  find  of  the  present  season’s  growth  among  the  stocks,  though  you 
may  properly  choose  a later  season,  if  you  have  nothing  to  hurry  you. 

The  young  seedlings  will  have  advanced  enough  to  pot  off,  one  in 
a pot,  with  loam,  peat,  and  decomposed  dung ; they  must  be  placed 
in  the  shade  out  of  doors,  or  in  a frame  and  light,  in  order  to  grow  five 
or  six  weeks.  See  that  they  are  watered  as  often  as  may  be  neces- 


CALENDAR  OF  OPERATIONS. 


77 


sary ; and  on  any  appearance  of  the  green  fly,  fumigate  them  with 
tobacco. 

At  the  North , roses  should  be  planted  out  in  borders  for  summer 
blooming. 

Sttij). 

If  this  month  be  at  all  forward,  you  may  bud ; and  if  you  have 
wood  given  to  you  when  you  are  not  ready  for  it,  put  the  ends  in  wet 
sand,  and  a hand  glass  over  them ; but  the  sooner  you  can  use  the 
buds  after  you  have  got  them  the  better.  The  stocks  must  be  put  in 
completely  all  over,  except  one  or  two  eyes  beyond  the  bud  on  the 
branches  in  which  the  bud  is  inserted.  All  China  Roses  in  pots  or 
out  of  doors  may  be  budded,  *and  so  also  may  all  the  smooth-barked 
kinds. 

Plant  out  the  young  seedlings  potted  last  month,  in  beds  tour  feet 
wide,  in  the  same  soil,  without  disturbing  the  balls  of  earth ; let  them 
be  six  inches  from  the  side  of  the  bed,  and  a foot  apart  each  way. 
Protect  them  from  vermin  by  all  ordinary  means ; shade  them  from 
the  heat  of  the  sun  at  mid-day ; wate^  if  required. 

At  the  North , roses  of  all  kinds  planted  in  open  ground,  may  be 
layered  the  last  of  this  month.  Perpetual  Roses  will  bloom  best  in 
autumn,  if  they  are  pruned  in  after  having  opened  their  first  flowers. 

^Cuflust. 

Continue  the  budding,  and  use  every  precaution  to  prevent  the 
stock  from  growing,  and  remove  suckers  the  instant  they  appear 
above  ground.  Nothing  should  be  allowed  to  grow,  except,  just 
beyond  the  bud ; a shoot  may  be  beneficial,  as  it  draws  the  sap  past 
the  bud ; but  as  soon  as  it  is  united  and  doing  well,  anything  growing 
beyond  it  may  be  broken  off,  or  bent  down  to  check  it  a little.  Cut- 
tings of  the  smooth-barked  kinds  will  strike  almost  every  month  in  the 
year ; but  at  the  end  of  this  month,  whatever  you  may  be  anxious  to 
propagate  may  be  struck  in  the  shade,  under  a hand  glass,  or  even 
quicker  where  there  is  a little  bottom  heat. 

The  same  directions  will  also  apply  to  the  North . 


78 


CALENDAR  OF  OPERATIONS. 


Sep  temper. 

You  may  now  examine  the  budded  plants,  and  undo  the  ties  of  any 
that  appear  to  swell,  tying  them  more  loosely,  although  tight  enough 
to  hold  in  the  bud.  If  any  of  the  buds  have  failed,  you  may  open  a 
fresh  place,  and  insert  others;  but  if  well  done,  this  will  seldom  be  the 
case.  Continue  to  remove  any  shoots  or  eyes  that  are  showing 
growth  in  the  stock,  for  on  this  much  depends.  Cuttings  from  the 
smooth-wooded  kinds  may  be  taken  and  struck,  and  any  that  are 
struck  may  be  potted  off  in  small  pots.  Weed  the  young  plants  in  the 
beds.  Water  them  if  the  season  be  dry. 

At  the  North,  roses  intended  for  early  forcing,  should  now  be 
repotted  and  pruned. 

October. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  month,  look  out  for  healthy  stocks,  or  get 
some  one  in  that  way  of  business  to  collect  for  you.  Always  choose, 
and  make  any  one  who  undertakes  to  supply  you  understand  that  you 
require  strong  stems,  perfectly  straight,  with  compact  roots,  that  have 
not  been  much  damaged  by  removal.  Any  that  you  get  should  be  at 
once  trimmed  and  planted  in  rows,  about  eighteen  inches  apart,  and 
the  rows  wide  enough  to  enable  you  to  go  up  and  down  them  well, 
to  operate  in  the  way  of  grafting  and  budding  when  required.  Many 
of  the  budded  stocks  may  now  be  untied  altogether,  but  it  is  not  well 
to  cut  the  branches  in  which  they  are  budded  close  down  to  the  bud 
until  the  spring  months.  As  they  would  be  more  susceptible  of 
damage  by  frost,  let  them  all  be  properly  sheltered,  and  fastened,  if 
they  have  become  loosened.  Shorten  the  longest  branches  of  standard 
roses,  that  they  may  not  hold  the  wind  so  much ; and  although  it 
would  be  improper  to  prune,  their  close  back  branches  may  be  cut 
clean  away,  because  they  are  of  no  use  on  the  tree.  Cuttings  of  the 
China  and  smooth- wooded  kinds  may  be  ,taken  now  for  general 
propagation.  The  plants  will  be  the  better  for  losing  the  wood,  espe- 
cially all  the  dwarfs  in  pots. 

Examine  the  August-budded  plants,  and  loosen  the  ties,  if  necessary. 
Break  or  cut  off  the  wild  part  of  the  stock  above  the  bud,  all  except 
one  growing  eye,  to  keep  up  the  circulation;  remove  all  other 


CALENDAR  OF  OPERATIONS. 


79 


branches  and  shoots.  Gather  the  “ hips,’’  or  berries,  of  any  desirable 
varieties  for  seed,  as  soon  as  ripe.  Look  to  those  roses  budded  on 
stocks  in  pots. 

At  the  North,  all  tender  kinds,  growing  in  open  ground,  should  be 
taker:  up  and  potted,  and  hardy  roses  may  be  successfully  trans- 
planted the  last  of  this  month. 

jtfobemfcer. 

This  is  the  best  month  in  the  year,  if  the  weather  is  dry  and  open, 
for  planting  out  the  garden  sorts  of  rose  trees  and  bushes ; therefore, 
all  removals  should  be  performed  as  soon  as  convenient,  according  to 
the  plan  pointed  out  in  the  foregoing  treatise.  The  leaves  of  all  the 
garden  sorts  are  falling,  or  have  fallen.  Some  of  the  perpetuals,  and 
the  China  and  hybrid  kinds,  are,  in  mild  autumns,  still  growing,  and 
perhaps  blooming.  Such  must  not  be  touched  till  the  leaves  have 
turned  yellow,  or  have  dropped ; but  in  all  other  cases,  where  the 
leaves  have  faded,  the  removal  is  kindly  and  beneficially  done.  Stocks 
may  be  procured  and  planted,  and  if  the  permanent  planting  cannot, 
for  any  particular  reasons,  be  done  now,  they  must  be  temporarily 
planted  or  laid  in  the  earth,  in  a sloping  direction,  and  the  roots  well 
covered  with  mould,  which  must  also  be  well  shook  in  among  the 
roots  and  fibres.  Cuttings  may  still  be  made  of  the  smooth-wooded 
kinds,  and  placed  close  together  in  pots  of  mould,  with  half  an  inch 
thickness  of  sand  at  the  top.  These  pots  must  not  be  allowed  to  dry, 
but  may  be  put  in  a pit  or  greenhouse,  or  plunged  under  a hand 
glass  in  the  border,  which  will  answer  for  covering  them  well  from 
frost. 

In  all  situations  subject  to  frosts,  throw  light  litter,  as  pea  vines, 
pine  boughs,  or  straw,  over  the  beds  containing  tender  varieties,  at 
night ; and  if  there  happen  to  be  frost,  do  not  remove  the  litter  during 
the  day.  Continue  to  gather  ripe  berries,  or  hips,  as  directed  last 
month.  Cut  out  the  weak  shoots  from  the  seedlings,  leaving  only  the 
robust  and  strong  ones  on  the  plant,  except  such  as  are  intended  for 
buds  in  the  spring. 

At  the  North , tender  roses  should  all  be  taken  up  this  month.  Per- 
petuals and  Bourbons,  in  the  open  ground,  if  in  a well-drained  situa- 
tion, with  a little  covering,  will  stand  the  winter  without  injury. 


80 


INSECTS, 


December. 

Planting  goes  on  well  this  month,  if  the  weather  be  dry  and  open ; 
but  if  wet,  and  the  ground  does  not  work  well,  it  is  better  deferred ; 
for  if  planting  is  done  when  the  soil  will  not  crumble  well,  and  go 
between  the  roots,  they  cannot  succeed.  Look  well  to  last  month’s 
directions,  and  attend  to  them  in  all  respects,  if  not  done  before. 

Seed  berries,  designed  for  sowing  next  spring,  may  be  preserved 
by  putting  a tile  at  the  bottom  of  a flower  pot,  into  which  may  be 
put  those  hips  that  are  perfectly  ripe,  covering  them  three  or  four 
inches  with  sand,  and  let  them  remain  until  wanted ; or  lay  them  on 
a shelf  to  dry  out  the  moisture.  See,  also,  that  the  stocks,  which  have 
been  budded,  are  secured  to  stakes  against  the  effects  of  the  wind. 
Protect  the  smooth- wooded  kinds,  budded  on  the  stocks  in  pots,  from 
the  frost,  and  look  well  to  the  litter  on  those  in  beds. 

At  the  North , those  roses,  taken  up  and  potted  last  month,  should 
now  be  headed  in,  cutting  away  all  small  shoots  to  one  good  eye. 
They  may  be  wintered  in  a cold  frame,  or  taken  into  the  house,  where 
they  will  bloom  from  February  to  May. 


INSECTS. 

Tete  insects  which  infest  the  Rose  are  quite  numerous ; but  as  their 
habits  are  comparatively  but  little  known,  it  has  thus  far  been  very 
difficult  to  arrest  their  ravages,  or  sensibly  diminish  their  number,  by 
artificial  means.  At  least  forty  distinct  species  are  described  by  Euro- 
pean naturalists,  but  many  of  them  do  not  exist  among  us.  The  only 
reliable  authority  on  this  subject,  in  this  country,  is  Dr.  T.  W.  Harris, 
of  Harvard  University.  From  his  “Report  on  the  Insects  Injurious 
to  Vegetation  in  Massachusetts,”  we  copy  the  following,  which,  doubt- 
less, will  be  acceptable  to  all  who  are  not  in  possession  of  his  work : — 
The  saw  fly  of  the  Rose,  which,  as  it  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
described  before,  may  be  called  Selandria  rosce , from  its  favorite  plant, 
so  nearly  resembles  the  slug- worm  saw  fly  as  not  to  be  distinguished 


INSECTS. 


81 


therefrom  except  by  a practised  observer.  It  is  also  very  much  like 
Selandria  barda , iritis  and  pygmcea , but  has  not  the  red  thorax  of  these 
three  closely-allied  species.  It  is  of  a deep  and  shining  black  color. 
The  first  two  pairs  of  legs  are  brownish  grey  or  dirty  white,  except 
the  thighs,  which  are  almost  entirely  black.  The  hind  legs  are  black, 
with  whitish  knees.  The  wings  are  smoky  and  transparent,  with 
dark-brown  veins,  and  a brown  spot  near  the  middle  of  the  edge  of 
the  first  pair.  The  body  of  the  male  is  a little  more  than  three  twen- 
tieths of  an  inch  long,  that  of  the  female  one  fifth  of  an  inch  or  more, 
and  the  wings  expand  nearly  or  quite  two  fifths  of  an  inch.  These 
saw  flies  come  out  of  the  ground,  at  various  times,  between  the  twen- 
tieth of  May  and  the  middle  of  June,  during  which  period  they  pair 
and  lay  their  eggs.  The  females  do  not  fly  much,  and  may  be  seen, 
during  most  of  the  day,  resting  on  the  leaves ; and,  when  touched, 
they  draw  up  their  legs,  and  fall  to  the  ground.  The  males  are  more 
active,  fly  from  one  rose  bush  to  another,  and  hover  around  their  slug- 
gish partners.  The  latter,  when  about  to  lay  their  eggs,  turn  a little 
on  one  side,  unsheath  their  saws,  and  thrust  them  obliquely  into  the 
skin  of  the  leaf,  depositing  in  each  incision  thus  made  a single  egg. 
The  young  begin  to  hatch  in  ten  days  or  a fortnight  after  the  eggs  are 
laid.  They  may  sometimes  be  found  on  the  leaves  as  early  as  the 
first  of  June,  but  do  not  usually  appear  in  considerable  numbers  till 
the  twentieth  of  the  same  month. 

How  long  they  are  in  coming  to  maturity,  I have  not  particularly 
observed ; but  the  period  of  their  existence  in  the  caterpillar  state 
probably  does  not  exceed  three  weeks.  They  somewhat  resemble  the 
young  of  the  saw  fly  in  form,  but  are  not  quite  so  convex.  They 
have  a small,  round,  yellowish  head,  wfith  a black  dot  on  each  side  of 
it,  and  are  provided  with  twenty-two  short  legs.  The  body  is  green 
above,  paler  at  the  sides,  and  yellowish  beneath;  and  it  is  soft,  and 
almost  transparent  like  jelly.'  The  skin  of  the  back  is  transversely 
wrinkled,  and  covered  with  minute  elevated  points;  and  there  are 
two  small,  triple-pointed  warts  on  the  edge  of  the  first  ring,  immedi- 
ately behind  the  head.  These  gelatinous  and  sluggish  creatures  eat 
the  upper  surface  of  the  leaf  in  large  irregular  patches,  leaving  the 
veins  and  the  skin  beneath  untouched ; and  they  are  sometimes  so 
thick  that  not  a leaf  on  the  bushes  is  spared  by  them,  and  the  whole 
foliage  looks  as  if  it  had  been  scorched  by  fire,  and  drops  off  soon 
4* 


82 


INSECTS. 


afterward.  They  cast  their  skins  several  times,  leaving  them  extended 
and  fastened  on  the  leaves ; after  the  last  moulting,  they  lose  their 
semi-transparent  and  greenish  color,  and  acquire  an  opaque  yellowish 
hue.  They  then  leave  the  rose  bushes,  some  of  them  slowly  creeping 
down  the  stem,  and  others  rolling  up  and  dropping  off,  especially 
when  the  bushes  are  shaken  by  the  wind.  Having  reached  the 
ground,  they  burrow  to  the  depth  of  an  inch  or  more  in  the  earth, 
where  each  one  makes  for  itself  a small  oval  cell,  of  grains  of  earth, 
cemented  with  a little  gummy  silk.  Having  finished  their  transforma- 
tions, and  turned  to  flies,  within  their  cells,  they  come  out  of  the 
ground  early  in  August,  and  lay  their  eggs  for  a second  brood  of 
young.  These,  in  turn,  perform  their  appointed  work  of  destruction 
in  the  autumn ; they  then  go  into  the  ground,  make  their  earthen 
cells,  remain  therein  throughout  the  winter,  and  appear  in  the  winged 
form,  in  the  following  spring  and  summer. 

During  several  years  past,  these  pernicious  vermin  have  infested 
the  rose  bushes  in  the  vicinity  of  Boston,  and  have  proved  so  injurious 
to  them,  as  to  have  excited  the  attention  of  the  Massachusetts  Horti- 
cultural Society,  by  whom  a premium  of  one  hundred  dollars,  for  the 
most  successful  mode  of  destroying  these  insects,  was  offered  in  the 
summer  of  1840.  About  ten  years  ago,  I observed  them  in  gardens, 
in  Cambridge,  and  then  made  myself  acquainted  with  their  transforma- 
tions. At  that  time,  they  had  not  reached  Milton,  my  former  place 
of  residence,  and  have  appeared  in  that  place  only  within  two  or  three 
years.  They  now  seem  to  be  gradually  extending  in  all  directions, 
and  an  effectual  method  for  preserving  our  roses  from  their  attacks 
has  become  very  desirable  to  all  persons  who  set  any  value  on  this 
beautiful  ornament  of  our  gardens  and  shrubberies.  Showering  or 
syringing  the  bushes  with  a liquor,  made  by  mixing  with  water  the 
juice  expressed  from  tobacco  by  tobacconists,  has  been  recommended; 
but  some  caution  is  necessary  in  making  this  mixture  of  a proper 
strength,  for  if  too  strong,  it  is  injurious  to  plants ; and  the  experiment 
does  not  seem,  as  yet,  to  have  been  conducted  with  sufficient  care  to 
insure  safety  and  success. 

Dusting  lime  over  the  plants,  when  wet  with  dew,  has  been  tried 
and  found  of  some  use ; but  this  and  all  other  remedies  will  probably 
yield  in  efficacy  to  Mr.  Haggerston’s  mixture  of  whale-oil  soap  and 
water,  in  the  proportion  of  two  pounds  of  the  soap  to  fifteen  gallons 


INSECTS. 


83 


of  water.  Particular  directions,  drawn  up  by  Mr.  Haggerston  himself, 
for  the  preparation  and  use  of  this  simple  and  cheap  application,  may 
be  found  in  the  “Boston  Courier,”  for  the  twenty-fifth  of  June,  1841, 
and  also  in  most  of  our  agricultural  and  horticultural  journals  of  the 
same  time.  The  utility  of  this  mixture  has  already  been  repeatedly 
mentioned  in  my  treatise,  and  it  may  be  applied  in  other  cases  with 
advantage.  Mr.  Haggerston  finds  that  it  effectually  destroys  many 
kinds  of  insects ; and  he  particularly  mentions  plant  lice  of  various 
kinds,  red  spiders,  canker  worms,  and  a little  jumping  insect  which 
has  lately  been  found  quite  as  hurtful  to  rose  bushes  as  the  slugs  or 
young  of  the  saw  fly.  The  little  insect  alluded  to  has  been  mistaken 
for  a species  of  thrips,  or  vine  fretter;  it  is,  however,  a leaf  hopper,  or 
species  of  Tettigonia , much  smaller  than  the  leaf  hopper  of  the  grape 
vine,  ( Tettigonia  vitis ,)  and,  like  the  leaf  hopper  of  the  bean,  entirely 
of  a pale-green  color. 

In  treating  of  the  common  Rose  Bug,  or  Rose  Chafer,  (Melolontha 
subspinosa ,)  Dr.  Harris  says : — * 

The  natural  history  of  the  rose  chafer,  one  of  the  greatest  scourges 
with  which  our  gardens  and  nurseries  have  been  afflicted,  was  for  a 
long  time  involved  in  mystery,  but  is  at  last  fully  cleared  up.  The 
prevalence  of  this  insect  on  the  Rose,  and  its  annual  appearance  coin- 
ciding with  the  blossoming  of  that  flower,  have  gained  for  it  the  pop- 
ular name  by  which  it  is  here  known.  For  some  time  after  they  were 
first  noticed,  rose  bugs  appeared  to  be  confined  to  their  favorite,  the 
blossoms  of  the  rose;  but  within  thirty  years,  they  have  prodigiously 
increased  in  number,  have  attacked  at  random  various  kinds  of  plants 
in  swarms,  and  have  become  notorious  for  their  extensive  and  deplo- 
rable ravages.  The  grape  vine  in  particular,  the  cherry,  plum  and 
apple  trees,  have  annually  suffered  by  their  depredations ; many  other 
fruit  trees  and  shrubs,  garden  vegetables  and  corn,  and  even  the  trees 
of  the  forest  and  the  grass  of  the  fields,  have  been  laid  under  contri- 
bution by  these  indiscriminate  feeders,  by  which  leaves,  flowers,  and 
fruits  are  alike  consumed. 

The  unexpected  arrival  of  these  insects  in  swarms,  at  their  first 
coming,  and  their  sudden  disappearance,  at  the  close  of  their  career, 
are  remarkable  facts  in  their  history.  They  come  forth  from  the 


84 


INSECTS. 


ground  during  the  second  week  in  June,  or  about  the  time  of  tne 
blossoming  of  the  Damask  Eose,  and  remain  from  thirty  to  forty  days. 
At  the  end  of  this  period,  the  males  become  exhausted,  fall  to  the 
ground,  and  perish,  while  the  females  enter  the  earth,  lay  their  eggs, 
return  to  the  surface,  and,  after  lingering  a few  days,  die  also.  The 
eggs  laid  by  each  female  are  about  thirty  in  number,  and  are  depos- 
ited from  one  to  four  inches  beneath  the  surface  of  the  soil ; they  are 
nearly  globular,  whitish,  and  about  one  thirtieth  of  an  inch  in  diame- 
ter, and  are  hatched  twenty  days  after  they  are  laid.  The  young 
larvae  begin  to  feed  on  such  tender  roots  as  are  within  their  reach. 
Like  other  grubs  of  the  Scarabaeians,  when  not  eating,  they  lie  upon 
the  side,  with  the  body  curved  so  that  the  head  and  tail  are  nearly  in 
contact ; they  move  with  difficulty  on  a level  surface,  and  are  contin- 
ually falling  over  on  one  side  or  the  other.  They  attain  their  full  size 
in  autumn,  being  then  nearly  three  quarters  of  an  inch  long,  and 
about  an  eighth  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  They  are  of  a yellowish- white 
color,  with  a tinge  of  blue  towards  the  hinder  extremity,  which  is 
thick  and  obtuse  or  rounded ; a few  short  hairs  are  scattered  on  the 
surface  of  the  body ; there  are  six  short  legs,  namely,  a pair  to  each 
of  the  first  three  rings  behind  the  head;  and  the  latter  is  covered  with 
a horny  shell  of  a pale  rust  color.  In  October,  they  descend  below 
the  reach  of  frost,  and  pass  the  winter  in  a torpid  state.  In  the  spring, 
they  approach  toward  the  surface,  and  each  one  forms  for  itself  a little 
cell  of  an  oval  shape,  by  turning  round  a great  many  times,  so  as  to 
compress  the  earth  and  render  the  inside  of  the  cavity  hard  and 
smooth.  Within  this  cell,  the  grub  is  transformed  to  a pupa, 
during  the  month  of  May,  by  casting  off  its  skin,  which  is  pushed 
downward  in  folds  from  the  head  to  the  tail.  The  pup  a has  some- 
what the  form  of  the  perfected  beetle ; but  it  is  of  a yellowisli-white 
color,  and  its  short  stump-like  wings,  its  antennae,  and  legs  are  folded 
upon  the  breast,  and  its  whole  body  is  inclosed  in  a thin  film,  that 
wraps  each  part  separately.  During  the  month  of  June,  this  filmy 
skin  is  rent,  the  included  beetle  withdraws  from  its  body  and  its 
limbs,  bursts  open  its  earthen  cell,  and  digs  its  way  to  the  surface  of 
the  ground.  Thus  the  various  changes,  from  the  egg  to  the  full  devel- 
opment of  the  perfected  beetle,  are  completed  within  the  space  of  one 
year. 

Such  being  the  metamorphoses  and  habits  of  these  insects,  it  is  evi- 


INSECTS. 


85 


dent  that  we  cannot  attack  them  in  the  egg,  the  grub,  nor  the  pupa 
state;  the  enemy,  in  these  stages,  is  beyond  our  reach,  and  is  subject 
to  the  control  only  of  the  natural  but  unknown  means  appointed  by 
the  Author  of  Nature  to  keep  the  insect  tribes  in  check.  When  they 
have  issued  from  their  subterranean  retreats,  and  have  congregated 
upon  our  vines,  trees,  and  other  vegetable  productions,  in  the  com- 
plete enjoyment  of  their  propensities,  we  must  unite  our  efforts  to 
seize  and  crush  the  invaders.  They  must  indeed  be  crushed,  scalded, 
or  burned,  to  deprive  them  of  life  ; for  they  are  not  affected  by  any  of 
the  applications  usually  found  destructive  to  other  insects.  Experi- 
ence has  proved  the  utility  of  gathering  them  by  hand,  or  of  shaking 
them  or  brushing  them  from  the  plants  into  tin  vessels  containing  a 
little  water.  They  should  be  collected  daily  during  the  period  of 
their  visitation,  and  should  be  committed  to  the  flames,  or  killed  by 
scalding  water.  The  late  John  Lowell,  Esq.,  states,  that  in  1823,  he 
discovered  on  a solitary  apple  tree,  the  rose  bugs  “ in  vast  numbers, 
such  as  could  not  be  described,  and  would  not  be  believed  if  they 
were  described,  or  at  least  none  but  an  ocular  witness  could  conceive 
of  their  numbers.  Destruction  by  hand  was  out  of  the  question”  in 
this  case.  He  put  sheets  under  the  tree,  and  shook  them  down,  and 
burned  them.  Dr.  Green,  of  Mansfield,  whose  investigations  have 
thrown  much  light  on  the  history  of  this  insect,  proposes  protecting 
plants  with  millinet,  and  says  that  in  this  way  only  did  he  succeed  in 
securing  his  grape  vines  from  depredation.  His  remarks  also  show 
the  utility  of  gathering  them.  u Eighty-six  of  these  spoilers,”  says  he, 
u were  known  to  infest  a single  rose  bud,  and  were  crushed  with  one 
grasp  of  the  hand.”  Suppose,  as  was  probably  the  case,  that  one  half 
of  them  were  females ; by  this  destruction,  eight  hundred  eggs,  at 
least,  were  prevented  from  becoming  matured. 

During  the  time  of  their  prevalence,  rose  bugs  are  sometimes  found 
in  immense  numbers  on  the  flowers  of  the  common  white  weed, 
or  ox-eye  daisy,  ( Chrysanthemum  leucanthemum ,)  a worthless  plant, 
which  has  come  to  us  from  Europe,  and  has  been  suffered  to  overrun 
our  pastures,  and  encroach  on  our  mowing  lands.  In  certain  cases,  it 
may  become  expedient  rapidly  to  mow  down  the  infested  white  weed 
in  dry  pastures,  and  consume  it  with  the  sluggish  rose  bugs  on  the 
spot. 

Our  insect-eating  birds  undoubtedly  devour  many  of  these  insects, 


86 


INSECTS. 


and  deserve  to  be  cherished  and  protected  for  their  services.  Rose 
bugs  are  also  eaten  greedily  by  domesticated  fowls ; and  when  they 
become  exhausted  and  fall  to  the  ground,  or  when  they  are  about  to 
lay  their  eggs,  they  are  destroyed  by  moles,  insects,  and  other  ani- 
mals, which  lie  in  wait  to  seize  them.  Dr.  Green  informs  us  that  a 
species  of  dragon  fly,  or  devil’s  needle,  devours  them.  He  also  says 
that  an  insect  which  he  calls  the  enemy  of  the  cut  worm,  probably 
the  larva  of  a Carabus,  or  predaceous  ground  beetle,  preys  on  the 
grubs  of  the  common  dor  bug.  In  France,  the  golden  ground  beetle, 
( Cardbus  auratus ,)  devours  the  female  dor  or  chafer  at  the  moment 
when  she  is  about  to  deposit  her  eggs.  I have  taken  one  specimen 
of  this  fine  ground  beetle  in  Massachusetts,  and  we  have  several  other 
kinds,  equally  predaceous,  which  probably  contribute  to  check  the 
increase  of  our  native  Melolonthians. 


87 


THE  DAHLIA. 


INTRODUCTION. 

Though  severed  from  its  native  clime, 
Where  skies  are  ever  bright  and  clear, 
And  nature’s  face  is  all  sublime, 

And  beauty  clothes  the  fragrant  air, 

The  Dahlia  will  each  glory  wear, 

With  tints  as  bright,  and  leaves  as  green, 
As  on  its  open  plains  are  seen. 

And  when  the  harvest  fields  are  bare, 
She  in  the  sun’s  autumnal  ray, 

With  blossoms  decks  the  brow  of  day. 

Martin. 


BOUT  ten  years  before  the  close  of  the  last  century,  this  favor- 
ite flower  was  sent  from  Mexico  to  Spain,  and  a few  speci- 
mens were  procured,  in  the  year  of  its  importation  to  that  couutry, 
from  Madrid,  by  the  then  Lady  Bute,  but  through  some  mismanage- 
ment the  species  was  lost,  until  Lady  Holland  obtained  seed  from  the 
same  city  in  1804;  while  in  1802,  another  species,  (Dahlia  coccine a,) 
had  been  brought  from  Mexico  through  France;  neither  the  latter 
nor  the  former,  (Dahlia  frustranea,)  seems,  however,  to  have  attracted 
much  attention  amongst  the  floricultural  world ; and  it  was  not  until 


88 


REQUISITES  OF  A PERFECT  FLOWER. 


after  the  peace  of  1815,  that  it  became  an  object  of  professional 
care,  when  a supply  was  obtained  in  England,  from  France,  where  its 
cultivation  had  already  been  carried  to  some  extent;  since  which 
period,  an  indefinite  number  of  varieties  has  been  procured  by  the  per- 
severing ingenuity  of  the  florist,  and  a monomania  for  this  flower 
existed  for  many  years  unsurpassed  in  inveteracy,  save  by  the  extra- 
ordinary il  Tulipomania”  of  the  seventeenth  century.  This  has  in 
some  degree  subsided,  and  the  Dahlia  is  taking  its  proper  rank  as  a 
deservedly  esteemed  flower,  blooming  at  a season  of  the  year  when 
the  number  of  flowering  plants  in  the  open  garden  is  very  limited. 

The  name  of  Dahlia  was  given  to  it  in  honor  of  Dahl,  a Swedish 
botanist  and  a pupil  of  Linnseus ; there  was  an  attempt  to  change  it 
to  Georgina,  and  on  the  continent  this  has  prevailed  to  a considerable 
extent ; but  in  England  and  this  country,  it  has  been  entirely  rejected. 


REQUISITES  OF  A PERFECT  FLOWER. 

The  following  characteristics  are  agreed  upon  by  the  London  Flori- 
cultural  Society  as  necessary  to  the  perfection  of  the  Dahlia  : — 

1st.  The  general  form  should  be  that  of  about  two  thirds  of  a sphere, 
or  globe.  The  rows  of  petals  forming  this  globe  should  describe  un- 
broken circles,  lying  over  each  other  with  evenness  and  regularity, 
and  gradually  diminishing  until  they  approach  the  top.  The  petals 
comprising  each  succeeding  row  should  be  spirally  arranged  and  alter- 
nate, like  the  scales  of  the  fir  cone,  thereby  concealing  the  joints  and 
making  the  circle  more  complete. 

2d.  The  petals  should  be  broad  at  the  ends,  perfectly  free  from  notch 
or  indention  of  any  kind,  firm  in  substance,  and  smooth  in  texture. 
They  should  be  bold  and  free,  and  gently  cup,  but  never  curl  or  quill, 
nor  show  the  under  sides;  they  should  be  of  uniform  size,  and  evenly 
expanded  in  each  row,  being  largest  in  the  outer  rows,  aud  gradually 
and  proportionately  diminishing  until  they  approach  the  summit,  when 
they  should  gently  turn  the  reverse  way,  pointing  towards  and  form- 
ing a neat  and  close  centre. 


PROPAGATION. 


89 


3d.  The  color  in  itself  should  be  dense  and  clear ; if  in  an  edged 
flower,  concentrated  and  well  defined ; and  in  both  cases  penetrating 
through  the  petal  with  an  appearance  of  substance  and  solidity. 

4th.  Size  must  be  comparative. 


PROPAGATION. 

The  Dahlia  may  be  propagated  from  tubers,  by  slips  or  cuttings,  or 
from  seed. 

Propagation  from  Seed. 

This  method  is  now  seldom  practised,  except  by  those  who  desire 
to  obtain  new  varieties  by  hybridising  between  two  distinct  species 
or  choice  varieties.  The  proper  time  for  sowing  the  seed  is  in  March 
or  April,  in  light  soil  in  shallow  boxes  or  pans,  which  are  placed  in  a 
moderate  hot  bed  to  promote  their  germination  ; though  some  florists 
think  that  plants  as  vigorous,  if  not  more  so,  may  be  obtained  from 
seed  sown  in  a warm  and  well-sheltered  border  toward  the  end  of 
April,  or  in  the  early  part  of  May,  provided  the  young  plants  are  pro- 
tected during  the  night  and  guarded  from  casual  frosts ; or  the  seed 
may  be  sown  in  pans  in  March  in  the  house,  and  put  out  in  the  open 
air  on  mild  days,  to  accustom  them  to  the  external  atmosphere.  In 
any  treatment,  when  the  seed  leaves  are  fully  developed,  they  must  be 
allowed  plenty  of  fresh  air,  Or  placed  in  a cold  frame,  taking  care  that 
they  are  put  as  near  as  possible  to  the  glass,  to  prevent  their  being 
drawn  and  growing  lanky ; they  may  also  be  potted  singly,  or  three 
or  four  together,  as  soon  as  they  will  bear  handling.  When  they 
have  four  leaves,  they  may  be  treated  in  every  respect  as  old  plants, 
and  from  the  twentieth  of  May  to  the  middle  of  June,  they  may  be 
planted  where  it  is  intended  they  should  flower. 

Seed  Gathering. — The  seed  should  be  collected  in  September  from 
dwarf  plants,  where  no  preference  exists  on  other  accounts ; and,  when 
double  varieties  are  principally  sought  for,  from  semi- double  flowers. 
Seeds  procured  from  those  florets,  which  have  changed  their  form,  are 


90 


PROPAGATION. 


supposed  to  have  a greater  tendency  than  the  other  to  produce  plants 
with  double  flowers. 


Propagation  by  Tubers,  or  Slips,  and  by  G-rafting, 

This  is  the  mode  most  commonly  adopted  for  the  propagation  of 
this  favorite  plant,  and  the  operation  is  begun  in  March  or  April,  by 
removing  the  tubers  from  the  place  where  they  have  been  deposited 
during  the  winter,  and  putting  them  in  pots,  or  in  loose  earth  on  a 
mild  hot  bed.  The  crown  of  each  tuber  is  left  uncovered  to  permit 
each  shoot  to  develop  itself,  under  the  full  influence  of  the  atmos- 
pheric air.  When  the  shoots  have  attained  the  length  of  about  three 
inches,  they  are  cautiously  separated  from  the  tuber  by  laying  hold  of 
the  slip  with  the  thumb  and  finger  near  its  base,  and  gently  moving 
it  backward  and  forward  until  it  comes  out  of  its  socket.  Mr.  Paxton 
recommends  that  where  the  shoots  are  numerous,  a part  of  the  crown 
of  the  tuber  should  be  invariably  taken  off  with  the  shoot,  a course 
more  likely  to  be  attended  with  success  than  by  extracting  the  slip. 

The  following  mode  of  increasing  choice  varieties  of  this  favorite 
flower  was  discovered  by  Mr.  Blake,  of  Kensington  Gore,  and  is  now 
commonly  practised  — 

Select  a good  tuber  of  a single  sort,  taking  special  care  that  it  has 
no  eyes ; then,  with  a sharp  knife,  (for  a dull  edge  would  mangle  the 
fleshy  root,  make  it  jagged,  and  so  prevent  a complete  adhesion  of  the 
scion  and  stock,)  cut  off  a slice  from  the  upper  part  of  the  root,  mak- 
ing at  the  bottom  of  the  part  so  cut  a ledge  wherein  to  rest  the  graft. 
This  is  done  because  you  cannot  tongue  the  graft  as  you  would  do  a 
wood  shoot;  and  the  ledge  is  useful  in  keeping  the  cutting  fixed  in 
its  place  while  you  tie  it.  Next  cut  the  scion,  (which  should  be  strong, 
short  jointed,  having  on  it  two  or  more  joints  or  buds,)  sloping  to  fit, 
and  cut  it  so  that  a joint  may  be  at  the  bottom  of  it  to  rest  on  the 
aforesaid  ledge ; a union  may  be  effected  without  the  ledge,  provided 
the  graft  can  be  well  fixed  to  the  tuber,  but  the  work  will  not  then 
be  so  neat.  It  is  of  advantage,  though  not  absolutely  necessary,  that 
a joint  should  be  at  the  end  of  the  scion  ; for  the  scion  will  occasionally 
put  forth  new  roots  from  the  lower  joint ; the  stem  is  formed  from 
the  upper  joint ; therefore  procure  the  cuttings  with  the  lower  joints 
as  near  together  as  possible. 


PROPAGATION. 


91 


After  the  graft  has  been  tied,  a piece  of  fine  clay,  such  as  is  used 
for  common  grafting,  must  be  placed  round  it ; then  pot  the  root  in 
fine  mould  in  a pot  of  such  a size  as  will  bury  the  graft  half  way  in 
the  mould ; place  the  pot  in  a little  heat  in  the  front  of  a cucumber  or 
melon  frame,  if  you  chance  to  have  one  in  work  at  the  time ; the  front 
is  to  be  preferred,  for  the  greater  convenience  of  shading  and  watering 
which  are  required.  A striking  glass  may  be  put  over  the  graft,  or 
not,  at  pleasure.  In  about  three  weeks,  the  root  should  be  shifted 
into  a large  pot,  if  it  be  too  soon  to  plant  it  in  the  border,  which  will 
probably  be  the  case,  as  the  plant  cannot  go  out  before  April  or  May, 
so  that  the  shifting  will  be  very  essential  to  promote  its  growth  till 
the  proper  season  of  planting  out  shall  arrive. 

Treatment  of  Slips. — The  shoots  having  been  carefully  separated  from 
their  parent  tuber,  they  are  immediately  placed  in  thumb  pots,  filled 
with  light  soil,  not  inserting  each  more  than  an  inch  deep ; when  this 
is  done,  the  pots  are  plunged  in  the  hot  bed.  When  they  have  filled 
these  small  pots  with  roots,  they  are  shifted  into  others,  which  may 
serve  them  until  the  time  for  planting,  unless  that  be  protracted  by 
unfavorable  weather ; in  which  contingency  it  will  be  desirable  to 
remove  them  again  into  a size  larger,  to  allow  the  roots  to  grow  more 
freely,  and  to  prevent  their  becoming  a close  and  compact  mass,  which 
would  be  highly  detrimental  to  their  vigorous  development,  and  the 
future  health  of  the  plant,  when  consigned  to  the  open  ground. 
Numerous  shoots  are  emitted  from  the  same  tuber  in  succession,  and 
these  are  treated  in  precisely  the  same  manner  when  arrived  at  the 
proper  length.  They  must  be  shaded  from  the  sun  while  making 
roots,  and  protected  from  vapor  and  frost.  The  best  compost  for  the 
Dahlia  in  pots  is  a mixture  of  sifted  decayed  hotbed  dung,  light 
virgin  loam,  and  pure  white  sand,  in  equal  quantities. 


Situation  and  Preparation  of  the  Soil. 

The  natural  habitat  of  the  Dahlia  is,  we  are  informed,  in  a rather 
light  soil  and  on  open  plains.  English  cultivators  recommend  a shel- 
tered situation ; that  is,  sheltered  from  high  winds,  which  break  and 
shatter  their  lateral  branches,  however  much  they  may  be  strength- 
ened and  supported  by  stakes ; yet  fully  exposed  to  the  sun,  and 
where  they  can  have  the  advantage  of  a free  circulation  of  air,  the  soil 


92 


TREATMENT. 


naturally  damp,  rich,  of  good  depth,  and  on  a dry  bottom.  The  soil, 
however,  is  rarely  so  good  that  it  cannot  be  improved  for  the  purpose 
for  which  it  is  desired,  and  it  is  recommended  that  those  who  would 
grow  the  Dahlia  to  perfection  should  trench  the  ground  in  November, 
previous  to  its  being  required,  by  first  removing  the  soil  to  the  depth 
of  twelve  inches,  and  replacing  it  with  equal  portions  of  good  yellow 
loam  and  peat  earth ; and  then  trenching  it  again  to  the  depth  of  two 
feet,  mixing  the  original  sub-soil  and  the  loam  and  peat  thoroughly 
together,  with  a large  quantity  of  stable  manure,  thoroughly  decayed, 
or  it  will  be  injurious.  This  may  seem  an  expensive  process,  but  once 
done  it  will  need  no  further  preparation  for  many  years,  except  the 
occasional  addition  of  manure. 

N.  B. — In  a strong  clay  soil,  enriched  with  well- decayed  manure, 
the  Dahlia  produces  the  largest  flowers  ; in  a light  soil,  the  plant  grows 
to  a great  size,  but  the  flowers  are  comparatively  small. 


TREATMENT. 

Those  who  have  no  hot  bed  wherein  to  start  their  Dahlias  into  a 
growing  state,  may  do  so  with  equal  success,  and  may  obtain  even 
more  vigorous  and  better-blooming  plants  than  those  which  are 
excited  by  artificial  heat,  by  planting  them  in  March  or  April  in  a box 
of  light  soil  or  decayed  leaves,  keeping  it  in  a moist  state,  and  expos- 
ing them  to  the  full  heat  of  the  sun  throughout  the  day,  and  taking 
them  in-doors  at  night.  When  the  shoots  are  three  or  four  inches 
long,  they  may  all,  except  one,  be  taken  off  close  to  the  tuber,  and 
treated  as  slips ; but  if  you  can  divide  the  tuber  into  as  many  pieces 
as  there  are  shoots,  it  is  to  be  preferred. 

Planting  Out. 

There  are  few  situations,  in  the  Middle  and  Northern  States,  where 
Dahlia  plants  can  be  planted  out  with  safety  before  April,  May,  or  the 
early  part  of  June.  When  the  operation  is  performed,  the  plants,  if  on 
beds  by  themselves,  which  is  desirable,  should  be  set  in  rows  not  less 


TREa  tment* 


93 


than  six  feet  apart  each  way.  Due  regard  must  be  had  to  the  respec- 
tive heights  of  the  plants  and  the  colors  of  their  flowers ; if  on  a bed 
where  they  are  to  be  viewed  from  all  sides,  the  tallest-growing  kinds 
should  be  placed  in  the  centre ; if  to  be  seen  only  from  the  front,  the 
loftiest  must  be  set  at  the  back;  and,  in  reference  to  colors,  so  arranged 
that  they  will  produce  a harmonious  effect  as  a mass.  Your  plants, 
if  well  grown,  will  be  from  eighteen  inches  to  twenty-four  in  height, 
when  planted,  and  should  be  supported  by  stakes  immediately;  when 
they  are  full  two  feet  high,  the  top  of  the  leading  shoots,  or  upright 
stem,  should  be  cut  off  to  induce  the  plant  to  throw  out  laterals. 

It  is  a very  common  error  to  keep  the  Dahlia  in  pots  too  small  for 
the  quantity  of  roots  the  plant  has  formed,  and  the  evil  consequences 
of  this  are  increased  in  seasons  when  it  is  most  desirable  they  should 
be  avoided ; for  if  the  weather  be  so  unfavorable  as  to  put  off  the 
period  of  planting  out,  the  roots  have  been  meanwhile  increasing,  and 
filling  up  the  pot,  so  that  when  the  plant  is  taken  out  to  be  set  in  the 
open  ground,  the  ball  of  earth  cannot  be  removed  without  breaking 
some  of  the  fibres ; and,  fearful  of  doing  this,  many  persons  plant  them 
without  disturbing  it,  and  the  result  generally  is,  that  the  plant  does 
not  begin  to  grow  vigorously  until  near  the  time  when  it  ought  to  be 
in  flower.  It  is  better,  indeed,  to  break  some  of  the  fibres,  and  get 
away  the  dried  and  baked  earth  from  around  the  roots ; for  though  it 
seems  to  give  a violent  check  to  the  growth  of  the  plant,  it  will,  when 
it  has  recovered,  thrive  far  better  than  those  planted  with  the  ball 
entire ; it  is,  however,  preferable  to  avoid  the  necessity  for  the  latter 
plan,  or  the  alternative  of  breaking  the  roots,  by  planting  them  in  pots 
of  a larger  size  than  those  commonly  used.  The  crown  of  the  tuber 
should  be  placed  at  least  three  inches  below  the  surface  of  the  soil  in 
planting  out. 

Mulching  and  Watering. 

When  the  plants  are  two  feet  high,  remove  the  earth  from  around 
the  base  of  the  stems  to  the  depth  of  three  or  four  inches ; supplying 
its  place  with  well-decomposed  manure,  which  must  be  slightly  cov- 
ered with  earth ; in  dry  weather,  the  plants  must  be  watered  through 
this  mulching  twice  a week  at  least,  or  every  other  day,  according  to 
the  state  of  the  weather ; and  this  should  be  done  in  the  evening.  The 


94 


AFtER  CULTURE. 


Dahlia  is  greatly  benefited  by  this  system  of  mulching  and  watering, ; 
for,  unlike  many  other  kinds  of  plants,  it  seeks  its  nourishment  chiefly 
from  the  surface  of  the  soil ; and  its  roots  will  be  found,  in  favorable 
circumstances,  to  be  clustered  together  near  it.  Throughout  the  sum- 
mer it  is  also  advantageous  to  the  plants  to  have  the  earth  around  the 
roots  carefully  loosened  by  the  use  of  a fork,  from  time  to  time. 


AFTER  CULTURE. 

Dahlias  should  never  be  pruned  until  the  bloom  buds  show,  and 
then  but  few  branches  should  be  cut  out,  and  only  such  as  are  grow- 
ing across  others.  The  buds  should  be  thinned,  for  it  is  by  these  that 
the  strength  of  the  plant  gets  exhausted.  By  removing  all  that  are 
too  near  one  to  be  bloomed,  and  all  those  that  show  imperfections 
enough  to  prevent  them  being  useful,  much  strength  will  be  gained 
by  the  future  flowers.  So,  also,  by  pulling  off  the  blooms  themselves, 
the  moment  they  are  past  perfection,  instead  of  letting  them  seed. 

Winds  and  sun  are  both  detrimental ; and  the  practice  of  fixing  the 
blooms  in  the  centre  of  a flat  board,  and  covering  them  with  glass  or 
flower  pots,  as  they  may  want  light  or  shade,  is  becoming  general. 
The  more  easy  way  is  to  use  a paper  shade  for  any  particular  fine 
bloom ; for  however  the  flowers  may  be  coaxed  and  nursed  under 
cover,  a stand  of  blooms,  grown  finely,  and  merely  shaded  from  the 
hottest  sun,  will  beat  all  others  in  brilliancy,  and  in  standing  carriage, 
and  keeping.  It  is  right  to  go  round  the  plants,  and,  wherever  there 
is  a promising  bud  or  bloom,  to  take  away  all  the  leaves  and  shoots 
that  threaten  to  touch  it  as  they  grow ; take  off  also  the  adjoining 
buds ; and  if  the  weather  be  windy,  make  it  fast  to  a stick  or  one  of 
the  stakes,  that  it  may  not  be  bruised  or  frayed ; shade  it  from  the 
broiling  sun,  and  it  will  so  profit  by  the  air  and  night  dews,  as  com- 
pared with  the  bloom  under  pots  and  glasses,  that  if  the  growth  be 
equal,  the  blooming  will  be  superior.  Nevertheless  people  will  cover; 
and  where  there  is  a disposition  to  a hard  eye,  it  will  hardly  come  out 
perfect  unless  it  is  covered.  As  the  end  of  September  approaches,  or 


AFTER  CULTURE. 


95 


as  soon  as  you  have  done  with  the  bloom,  earth  up  the  plants,  in 
order  that  when  the  frost  comes  it  may  not  reach  the  crown. 


Preserving  the  Boots. 

The  plants  may  be  raised  without  injury,  immediately  after  the 
blooms  are  cut  off  by  the  frost,  provided  that  they  are  hung  up  in  a 
dry  and  ordinarily  protected  situation,  with  the  roots  uppermost,  if  care 
is  taken  to  leave  six  or  seven  inches  of  the  stem  attached  to  each  tuber ; 
this  may  be  done  without  the  slightest  fear  of  their  withering  from 
having  been  lifted  in  a green  state.  As  the  winter  advances,  and  the 
tubers  become  matured  and  firm,  the  ordinary  modes  of  protection 
against  frost  may  be  resorted  to. 


Treatment  vrhen  Flowering. 

When  the  buds  of  your  Dahlias  begin  to  appear,  you  must  take 
them  off  until  you  think  the  plants  have  attained  their  full  vigor,  and 
then  permit  only  every  third  bud  to  grow  to  maturity ; by  doing  this, 
it  is  true,  you  will  not  have  so  numerous  a show  of  flowers,  but  those 
which  you  have,  will  attain  the  highest  state  of  perfection  your  plants 
are  capable  of ; taking  into  account  their  situation  and  previous  treat- 
ment, and,  what  is  of  paramount  importance,  the  character  of  the 
season.  In  the  treatment  of  flowers  grown  for  exhibition  at  flower 
shows,  it  is  a common  practice  to  bind  down  the  disk  of  the  flower 
towards  the  earth,  by  which,  it  is  said,  the  flowers  are  rendered  more 
perfect  in  form,  and  richer  in  color.  When  in  flower,  the  bloom  should 
be  shaded  from  the  sun,  during  the  hottest  parts  of  the  day. 

Striped  Varieties. — The  striped  kinds  have  a tendency  to  u run,”  as 
it  is  termed,  into  self-colored  flowers,  if  not  carefully  treated,  and 
almost  invariably  do  so  when  planted  in  rich  soil ; the  best  mode  of 
keeping  them  “ clean,”  that  is,  in  their  prime  estate  as  striped  flowers, 
is  to  plant  them  in  poor  soil. 

Autumnal  and  Winter  Treatment. 

It  is  the  practice  with  many  persons  to  take  up  their  Dahlia  roots 
as  soon  as  the  shrubs  are  cut  down  by  the  frost ; this  is  not  desirable, 
because  if  the  tubers  are  taken  up  before  their  vital  powers  are  in  a 


/ 


96 


AFTER  CULTURE. 


quiescent  state,  they  are  more  easily  injured  by  the  dryness  of  the 
atmosphere  into  which  they  are  to  be  removed,  and  which  it  is  neces- 
sary they  should  be  able  to  bear  without  shrivelling;  as  in  a moist 
atmosphere  they  are  apt  to  become  mildewed  and  mouldy ; therefore, 
it  is  best  about  the  end  of  September  to  cover  the  stems  and  some 
distance  round  with  earth  and  littery  dung,  about  six  inches  thick,  so 
as  to  protect  the  crown  of  the  tuber  from  injury  by  the  early  frosts ; 
and  allow  them  to  remain  in  the  ground  till  November,  when  they 
must  be  taken  up  and  spread  singly  in  a dry  open  shed  for  a few  days, 
not  allowing  the  sun  to  shine  upon  them,  and  turned  occasionally 
during  this  period,  so  that  they  may  be  dried  gradually ; as,  if  dried 
too  quickly,  they  shrivel,  or  too  slowly,  they  become  rotten. 

When  sufficiently  dry,  clear  away  the  earth  from  them,  and  place 
them  in  a dry  under-ground  cellar,  where  the  frost  is  not  likely  to 
reach  them ; and  these  should  be  examined  throughout  the  winter 
from  time  to  time,  and  if  there  be  the  least  symptom  of  damp  upon 
the  tubers,  they  should  be  carefully  wiped  with  a dry  cloth,  and 
receive  almost  daily  attention.  Should  you  not  have  the  convenience 
of  such  a cellar,  you  must  store  them  in  a pit  in  the  garden,  which 
must  be  prepared  in  a dry  spot,  and  be  of  sufficient  capacity  to  hold 
all  your  tubers.  Having  dug  the  pit,  cover  the  bottom  with  dry 
ashes,  then  pile  the  roots  thereon,  tier  upon  tier,  so  as  to  form  a ridge ; 
then  cover  them  with  plenty  of  straw,  and  form 'a  ridge  of  earth  over 
them  of  the  thickness  of  twelve  or  fourteen  inches. 


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